Economics
2008
Curriculum AP
Microeconomics:
International Module
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AP Microeconomics
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Table of Contents
Editors Introduction ......................................................... 1
Richard K. Rankin
Iolani School
Honolulu, HI
International Economics
and the AP Microeconomics Course ........................... 2
Arthur Raymond
Muhlenberg College
Allentown, PA
Trade Restrictions and Total Surplus .......................... 7
Linda M. Manning
University of Ottawa
Ottawa, Canada
Bill McCormick
Richland District Two
Columbia, SC
The Basics of Absolute
and Comparative Advantage ....................................... 24
Peggy Pride
St. Louis University High School
St. Louis, MO
Contributors ...................................................................... 36
Curriculum Module: International Economics
International Economics
Editors Introduction
Richard K. Rankin
Iolani School
Honolulu, Hawaii
International economics has become an increasingly important segment of economic
study in recent years. Not only has international trade become a larger percentage of the
gross domestic product for most countries, but it is clear that domestic monetary and
fiscal policies can cause international impacts and reactions that must be considered
when formulating economic policies. In addition, many students studying economics and
business today will find themselves working for multinational firms during their careers.
Unfortunately, recent student scores on the international economics questions of
the AP Economics Exams have not been very good compared with the other parts of the
exams. There is a great deal of speculation as to why students do not perform very well on
the international economics questions, but most teachers agree that one cause could be
that international economics has most often been left for the last major subject taught in
an economics course. As such, international economics does not always receive the
attention and emphasis it deserves.
As the College Board advisor for AP Economics, it is my hope that the pieces in
this curriculum module will help teachers rectify the current shortcoming in teaching
international economics in economics courses. They should see interesting and helpful
ways to present the material, as well as ways to address the topic earlier in their
economics courses and then build on that knowledge throughout the course.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
International Economics and the AP
Microeconomics Course
Arthur Raymond
Muhlenberg College
Allentown, Pennsylvania
Introduction
Because of time constraints, many teachers of AP Microeconomics find that a complete
and thorough coverage of the AP curriculum can be difficult. In many Principles of
Microeconomics courses and texts, the material on international economics comes at the
end, when little time is left for complete and thorough coverage. This tendency,
combined with the inherent complexity of international ideas, may be the source of the
trouble many students have with international questions on the AP Exam. The purpose of
this essay is to offer a few suggestions for integrating international ideas into material
covered earlier in the Principles of Microeconomics course. By showing students where
international economic ideas fit into the most basic analyses, the teacher can prompt
students to begin to think about such ideas. This thought process can promote more
focused discussion later in the course. A major strength and appeal of economics is that
most of its fundamental conceptslike elasticity, marginal analysis, opportunity cost, and
the supply-and-demand frameworkcan be applied to many forms of production,
consumption, and exchange, both international and domestic. I am not suggesting that
more material be included in the Principles of Microeconomics course but that
applications of standard material presented early in the course include examples with an
international focus. In my Principles of Microeconomics course, I provide some
international examples in class; I also include, as part of homework and other out-of-class
assignments, a number of international examples that require students to apply vital
concepts (such as opportunity cost or supply and demand) to new areas. I find that most
students enjoy discovering for themselves how the core tools can be extended to
international exchange.
Integrating the Concepts in the Course
A natural point at which to introduce international economic ideas is when the text or
the syllabus reaches opportunity cost. The idea of opportunity cost establishes the basis of
comparative advantage and exchange. If you are using a text that does not take this
chance to extend the idea to international trade, adding a few relatively simple examples
can easily make the point. In addition to demonstrating comparative advantage by
considering the productivity of, say, Bill and Beth, or Farm A and Farm B, use the same
framework for Belgium and France.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
The idea of comparative advantage can be easily elaborated by pointing out that
the sources of comparative advantage, domestic and international, are natural and/or
acquired. For instance: The United States has cheap food relative to much of the world in
part because of the natural relative abundance of arable land in the U.S. Jockeys have a
comparative advantage in horse racing because of their size. The Middle East has cheap
oil relative to much of the world because of the regions relative abundance of oil fields.
These are natural advantages that exist because of the initial endowment of resources. On
the other hand, New York has a comparative advantage in financial services; doctors have
a comparative advantage in medicine; and Hollywood has a comparative advantage in
making movies, not primarily because of initial endowments (there is nothing natural
about the geography of New York that confers a comparative advantage in financial
services), but due to productivity acquired through time because of historical
circumstances. Few of us are natural teachers of economics, but have become so because
of the history of our personal lives.
Figure 1: Worlds supply of, and demand for, shoes.
(Figure courtesy of author).
Using the Supply-and-Demand Framework
The supply-and-demand framework is a versatile framework for many international
economic examples. The relationship between the worlds supply of and demand for
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
shoes, shown in Figure 1, demonstrates comparative advantage. In the graph, the number
of exchanges is Qe. These exchanges take place because of comparative advantage. For,
say, the tenth unit, the price that a buyer is willing to pay is above the price at which a
producer is willing to sell. The producer clearly has a comparative advantage relative to
the buyer. If the buyer had a comparative advantage, then he could produce the goods
himself at a cheaper price and so would not be willing to pay more than the sellers asking
price. This exchange could occur domestically, or between a foreign buyer and a domestic
seller, or between a domestic buyer and a foreign seller.
Figure 2: Domestic producers supply and domestic buyers demand.
(Figure courtesy of author).
The supply-and-demand framework can also be used to show imports and exports
directly. Figure 2 shows the supply of a good by domestic producers and the demand for
that good by domestic buyers. In the absence of any trade, the domestic equilibrium price
is Pe and the domestic equilibrium quantity is Qe. If the world price for the good is Pw,
then only those domestic producers who can sell at Pw or less will find buyers, so Q1 will
be the amount sold by domestic sellers. The quantity demanded at Pw is Q2, which means
the distance from Q2 to Q1 (or distance ab) will be the quantity of goods imported. The
same analysis can also show the quantity of exports if the world price is above the
domestic equilibrium price in the absence of trade.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
The supply-and-demand analysis in Figure 2 can also be used to show the benefit
of imports, a point often difficult to impress upon students. The social surplus in the
absence of trade is the triangle formed above supply and below demand up to Qe. As a
result of imports at the world price, consumer surplus is increased and producer surplus
is reduced, but the gain to consumers is larger than the loss to producers, resulting in a
net gain in social surplus equal to the triangle formed by points a, b, and c. These are the
gains from trade. A similar analysis can be used to show the gains from exports when the
world price is above the equilibrium domestic price in the absence of trade.
In microeconomics, an interesting application of the price elasticity of demand is
international price discrimination. For a number of goods, the price charged for a good
produced domestically is higher domestically than the price charged in foreign markets.
When markets can be separated (if reselling doesn't occur due to such factors as
information barriers or transportation costs) and markets are not competitive, firms can
charge different prices in different markets for the same good. In general, when the price
elasticity of demand is lower, the price that can be charged will be higher because
consumers do not significantly reduce their purchases when the price is increased. For
many nations there is a home bias, in that domestic consumers, ceteris paribus, will prefer
goods produced in their own market to those produced internationally. (The buy
American sentiment is one example, as well as formal rules that require most U.S. states
to buy locally even when foreign prices are cheaper.) This home bias means that the price
elasticity of demand, ceteris paribus, will be lower for a domestic good sold domestically
than for the same domestic good sold in a foreign market. Thus, the price elasticity of
demand for Ford trucks will be higher in Japan than in the United States The Ford Motor
Company, consequently, can sell Ford trucks for a higher price in the United States than
in Japan in the presence of home bias (apart from transportation costs)1. The same
analysis means that Japanese-produced goods will have a higher price in Japan than in
the U.S.
Classroom Activities
The above applications are in just a few areas where international ideas can be introduced
in a relatively simple manner early in the course. With a little thought, one can find many
other examples that can serve to easily integrate international economics into material
that is traditionally focused on domestic production, consumption, and exchange. For
example, an analysis of the competitive market can include discussion of the point that an
input imported from nations with a comparative advantage in the production of the input
can lower the average cost of production of each firm in the industry. A lower long-run
average cost for each firm will, in the long run, make the domestic industry larger and the
price of the good using the input lower, much like technological progress. Another
possibility is introducing the effects of immigration on the labor market and the
production possibility frontier.
1
Verified by www.fordmotor.com
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Although the earlier introduction of international economics into the Principles
of Microeconomics course is not a perfect substitute for the in-depth treatment we hope
to provide at the end of our courses, it can nicely complement that in-depth treatment
with little loss of time. For many of us, early exposure might also ease the end-of-semester
crunch. Just as important, it can help students understand, and help us remember, that
the principles of analysis underlying the distinct and complex field of international
economics are the same familiar concepts we apply in microeconomics.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Trade Restrictions and Total Surplus
Linda M. Manning
University of Ottawa
Ottawa, Canada
Bill McCormick
Richland District Two
Columbia, South Carolina
Overview
This curriculum module is designed to serve as a platform for assisting teachers with the
section of the AP Microeconomics course on international trade and market interference.
Topics addressed include:
Market efficiency and inefficiency
Consumer surplus
Producer surplus
Domestic price changes
Foreign price changes
World prices
Efficiency loss of a tariff
Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this unit of study, the student will be able to:
1. Identify who benefits and who loses as a result of trade. (Blooms Revised
Taxonomy Classification:2 2.5 Inferringdrawing a conclusion from given
information)
2. Explain graphically that there are gains and losses from trade, but that the overall
effect is a net gain. (2.7Explaining through construction of models)
3. Use an economic model to explain how government intervention creates
inefficiency in a market. (3.2Implementingusing a model to explain)
4. Identify and explain why some parties would be opposed to trade. Use an
economic model to demonstrate the costs to these parties. (5.2Critiquing
Judging and hypothesizing)
2
Anderson, Lorin W. and Krathwohl, David R. (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning,
Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, New York,
New York: Longman.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
5. Identify the area of revenue collected by a tariff (4.1Differentiating Selecting
and applying procedure)
6. Identify and define the area of efficiency loss created by a tariff. (4.1
DifferentiatingSelecting and applying procedure)
7. Show how the world price affects the quantities demanded and consumed in the
domestic economy. (2.5Inferring Concluding and predicting; 4.1
DifferentiatingSelecting and applying procedure)
Essential Vocabulary
1. Domestic Demand Curve: The quantity demanded of a good by domestic
consumers depending upon the price of the good.
2. Domestic Supply Curve: Shows the quantity that domestic producers are willing
to produce depending upon the price of the good.
3. World Price: The price at which a good can be purchased or sold, in a market
other than the domestic.
4. Free Trade: Trade without government restriction.
5. Tariff: A tax on imported goods.
6. Efficiency Loss: The additional cost manifested in terms of inefficiency that results
because the tariff or trade restriction decreases the number of market transactions
that would otherwise occur.
7. Trade Restrictions: Government market interventions designed to reduce the
volume of international trade.
Globalization and the Shoe Industry
To produce the wine in Portugal, might require only the labour of 80 men for one year,
and to produce the cloth in the same country, might require the labour of 90 men for the
same time. It would therefore be advantageous for her to export wine in exchange for
cloth. This exchange might even take place, notwithstanding that the commodity
imported by Portugal could be produced there with less labour than in England.3
Trade among humans and households has existed since the beginning of time,
and has been documented well before ancient civilizations established trade routes to
move sought after products to their domestic markets. Trade is a voluntary exchange
between buyers and sellers in different countries that benefits both parties involved in the
transaction. This benefit is called the gains from trade.
Gains from trade arise as a result of specialization. Individuals, countries,
and regions endowed with particular proprietary resources have the ability to produce an
economic product at a lower cost than others and will be able to sell the good at a lower
price to buyers than the domestically produced commodity. Those who can produce the
3
Ricardo, David. (1821). On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (3rd ed.), London:
John Murray [first published 1817]
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
good at lowest cost are said to have the absolute advantage and should specialize in the
production of the good (Adam Smith). But even if an individual or country cannot
produce the good at the lowest cost, it may produce the good at a lower opportunity cost,
this being determined by their initial factor endowments, and also those of other
countries. Those who can produce a good at the lowest opportunity cost are said to have a
comparative advantage and should specialize in that good (David Ricardo). These
concepts of specialization and comparative advantage are fundamental to an
understanding of international trade.
Economists assert that voluntary exchange (trade) makes both market participants
(the buyers and the sellers) better off than they would have been in the absence of the
transaction. If this is true, why are some groups so opposed to free trade? The answer lies
in the fact that not all parties benefit equally, nor are all the effects of trade positive for
everyone. For instance, while consumers can purchase more at lower prices with trade, we
often observe that domestic jobs are lost. This translates into lower income to some
households and some producers. The economists assertion of gains from trade reflects an
overall, net effect, and not an impact on any specific group within an economy. In the
pages that follow, you will learn how to explain this phenomenon using economic theory.
Lets use a historical example and economic theory to analyze what happens when
there is free trade; why some people oppose free trade; and what happens when the
government uses protectionist policies to limit the amount of free trade.
The U.S. Shoe Industry
The U.S. shoe industry was established primarily in New England and serves as an
excellent platform for analyzing who gains and who loses from trade, the meaning of
market efficiency, and the costs of trade barriers.
The Shoe Industry Before Trade
In the colonial era, a pair of shoes was relatively more expensive than what one might pay
today. We need look no further than simple economic principles to uncover the reason
for this. Since the methods employed in the manufacturing process were primarily labor
intensive, assisted only by hand tools, the opportunity cost of a pair of shoes was
relatively high compared with that of many other goods. Even though shoemakers were
on the lower end of the wage scale compared with other skilled craftsmen such as
cabinetmakers and silversmiths,4 they nevertheless commanded a fair market wage for the
hours of labor required to make a pair of shoes.
Shoes were produced with rudimentary and largely manual manufacturing
techniquesnot only in constructing the final product, but also in creating the inputs
such as the leather and the thread. Because of this, shoes were produced and sold locally
4
http://www.answers.com/boot%20and%20shoe%20manufacturing, boot and shoe
manufacturing, US History Encyclopedia.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
(i.e., not traded on the world market). Raw materials were generally not imported,5 and as
many hours were required to make a pair of shoes, prices were relatively high. Figure 1
illustrates the U.S. shoe market in equilibrium. The position of the Domestic Supply
curve reflects the relative high cost of production. We will assume throughout the
analysis that follows, that demand remains constant.
Figure 2: Domestic producers supply and domestic buyers demand.
(Figure courtesy of author).
This diagram illustrates the situation in the U.S. (the domestic economy) with no
trade (i.e., shoes are produced domestically [no imports], and sold domestically [no
exports]).
While shoes are not traded in Figure 1, shoes are a tradable goodthey can either
be imported or exported. There will be a few things youll note that are different about the
diagrams for markets for tradable goods. First, you will note that supply and demand are
labeled Domestic Supply and Domestic Demand. These are the same supply and demand
curves you learned about when you first began your study in economics. By identifying
them specifically as domestic curves, we can use this diagram to illustrate the situation
with trade. This is a bit confusing. Perhaps change to You will discover that with free
trade, all consumers and producers face the world price.
When there is no international trade in shoes, market equilibrium is determined
by the intersection of the domestic demand and domestic supply curves, point A in
5
Thomson, Ross. (1989). The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States, Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Figure 1. The domestic market equilibrium price of shoes is PA, and the equilibrium
quantity of shoes produced and consumed domestically is QA
Gains from exchange in the domestic market
Before we consider trading shoes on the world market, lets review the concept of market
efficiency in the shoe market. Efficiency is defined as the price and quantity that
maximize total surplus.
Figure 2 illustrates consumer and producer surplus when the domestic market is in
equilibrium.
Figure 2:
As you will note, both consumers and producers gain from voluntary exchange in
the domestic market. Consumer surplus is equal to the area of the upper shaded triangle
in Figure 2. Producer surplus is equal to the area of the lower shaded triangle, and total
surplus is equal to the sum of these two shaded triangles.
Changes in supply; changes in gains from exchange
Around 1850, innovations in the industry occurred that mechanized many specialized
processes. There were over 5,000 American patents6 for improvements in shoemaking.
6
Thomson, Ross. (1989). The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States, Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Three were especially significant:
1. Howe sewing machine
2. Method of sewing upper to sole
3. Invention of the Goodyear Welt7
By 1919, there were 1,449 shoe firms with 211,000 employees producing 331
million pairs of shoes.8
You should recognize these innovations as one of the determinants of supply
shoe producers could produce more with fewer inputs. This increased supply and
lowered prices to consumers. We illustrate this in the shoe market diagram with a
rightward shift in the domestic supply curve. We then can use this to review the impact of
an increase in domestic supply on consumer and producer surplus.
Figure 3:
With the increase in supply, the price falls and the quantity increases. As a result,
consumer surplus rises. Consumer surplus initially was ACP1, and after the increase in
supply, consumer surplus is the area defined by BCP2.
7
8
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blshoe.htm
Thomson, Ross. (1989). The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States, Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Figure 4:
With the increase in supply, the price falls and the quantity increases. As drawn,
producer surplus rises. Producer surplus initially was AFP1, and after the increase in
supply, producer surplus is the area defined by BGP2.
Gains and losses from trade
We can use the evolution of the shoe industry to analyze changes over time and examine
who benefits and who loses from trade (sometimes called globalization in the news) in
this industry. When there is trade, the price that domestic producers and consumers face
is no longer fully determined by domestic supply and demand. Instead price is
determined by the world market, which gives us the world price, and domestic producers
and consumers face the world price when there is international trade.
In an open economy (i.e., an economy where there is trade), in markets for
tradable goods, domestic QS and domestic QD are no longer equal, and the difference
between the two (domestic shortage or surplus) represents the amount of trade (imports
or exports). With trade, there will be a net gain in total surplus in the economy, which can
be illustrated on the demand/supply diagram using the market analysis. You will discover
that with trade, there are always winners and losers, but that the wins are greater than the
losses.
After World War I, exports and imports increased in America as trade restrictions
decreased. These changes affected the shoe industry.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Figure 5:
In an open economy (i.e., an economy where there is trade), in markets for
tradable goods, domestic QS and domestic QD are no longer equal, and the difference
between the two (domestic shortage or surplus) represents the amount of trade (imports
or exports).
If shoes are bought and sold in the world market, there will be an equilibrium
price determined in that market, and this is the price that domestic consumers and
producers face. We assume that the world market is so large that the decisions of
domestic consumers and producers do not affect the world price. Domestic consumers
and producers can exchange all that they desire at a fixed world price. Figure 5 illustrates
the case where the world price is lower than the domestic equilibrium price, in other
words, PW, is lower than the price of shoes that would prevail in the domestic market
without trade, PA.
Lets review the analysis of this diagram. At world price PW, the quantity of
domestic supply is labeled on the diagram as QS, and the quantity of domestic demand is
QD. At the world price, quantity demanded is higher than quantity supplied. In a market
analysis without trade, we would just call this a shortage. But because unlimited quantities
of shoes can be purchased from abroad, the shortage is filled by imports from abroad. The
amount of imports is QD QS, as indicated in Figure 5.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Who gained and who lost?
American consumers gained because they pay lower prices for their shoes and are likely
to have a larger variety of types and quality of shoes with trade. These gains can be
demonstrated with an analysis of the change in consumer surplus.
American producers lost because the lower world price means that U.S. shoe
manufacturers earned lower profits. Some went out of business because the world price
was lower than their minimum average cost. The lower production (decrease in quantity
supplied) of shoes in the United States resulted in a loss of jobs for workers in the shoe
industry and in related industries. In fact, the few remaining American shoe producers
tend to make specialty products such as hiking boots, steel-toed industrial shoes, and
luxury products such as handmade bench-crafted shoes or custom-sized products. The
losses incurred by producers can be illustrated with an analysis of the change in producer
surplus.
With trade, there will be a net gain in total surplus in the economy, illustrated on
the demand/supply diagram using the market analysis. You will discover that with trade
there are always winners and losers, but that the wins are greater than the losses. Figure 6
illustrates these impacts.
Figure 6:
CHANGE IN SURPLUS
Gain
Loss
X+Z
Consumer Surplus
X
Producer Surplus
Z
Change in Total Surplus
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
With no trade, consumer surplus was represented by the area CS. With trade,
consumer surplus is CS + X + Z. So consumers gain from trade when the world price is
below the domestic equilibrium price and the country imports the good. However,
domestic producers lose. Producer surplus before trade was PS + X, after and trade,
producer surplus is PS. Imports of a particular good hurt domestic producers of that good
but help domestic consumers. Consumers gain X + Z, whereas producers lose X, which
means that the gains are greater than the lossesso overall, there is a net gain from trade
for the economy. For exports, it is the opposite caseconsumers are made worse off and
producers are made better off. In each case, the gains are larger than the losses.
The undoubted pain suffered by the losers from trade often is translated into pressure
put on politicians to restrict trade in one way or another. The pain is often felt more
strongly than the happiness felt by those who benefit from trade.9
Those who lose with trade often put pressure on politicians for trade barriers
policies that protect them from trade. If politicians yield to this pressure, there are costs
that need to be taken into account. An import tariff is an example of such a policy,
designed to protect domestic producers. What well see is that while producers may be
made better off by a tariff, the improvement in their well-being is at the expense of
consumers, and that the loss to consumers is greater than the gains to producers.
The Effects of Trade Protection
Trade protection consists of policies that discourage imports, usually aimed at protecting
domestic producers. The most common protectionist policy is a tariff. A tariff is a form
of excise tax on sales of imported goods.
The effect of a tariff is to raise both the price received by domestic producers and
the price paid by domestic consumers.
As an example, when the United States imports shoes, and a tariff of $100 per pair
of shoes is imposed, the domestic price will rise by $100 per pair, and it wont be
profitable to import shoes unless the price in the domestic market is high enough to
compensate importers for the cost of paying the tariff.
Figure 7 illustrates the effects of a tariff on shoe imports. As before, we assume
that PW is the world price of shoes. Before the tariff is imposed, imports have driven the
domestic price down to PW, so that pre-tariff domestic production is QS, pre-tariff
domestic consumption is QD, and pre-tariff imports are QD QS.
9
Stone, Gerald. (2007). CoreMicroeconomics, International Trade (chapter). New York: Worth
Publishers.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Figure 7:
If the government imposes a tariff on each pair of shoes imported, it is no longer
profitable for foreign producers to sell their shoes in the U.S. unless the domestic price is
equal to the world price plus the tariff because those shoes can be sold for Pw elsewhere.
So the domestic price rises to PT which is equal to the world price, PW plus the
tariff. Domestic production rises to QS2, domestic consumption falls to QD2, and imports
fall to QD2 QS2.
Domestic price rises as a result of the tariff, leading to increased domestic
production and reduced domestic consumption compared to the situation under free
trade. Figure 8 shows the effects of the tariff on consumer and producer surplus.
Three groups of the economy are affected by a tariff: the government, who
receives the revenues from the tariff, the consumer who pays higher prices for the shoes,
and the producer, who earns higher profits from the sale of shoes in the domestic market.
Figure 8 demonstrates how to determine what the revenues are to the government, what
the losses are to consumers, and what the gains are to domestic producers.
The government collects the tariff. For each pair of shoes, the government receives
the tariff. So total revenue from the tariff will be the number of cases of shoes imported
(QD2 QS2) times the tariff (PT PW), which is equal to area C on Figure 8.
You know that an excise tax creates an efficiency loss, also known as deadweight
loss, because the tax prevents mutually beneficial trades from occurring. A tariff is much
like an excise tax on imports. On Figure 8 you can see that part of the loss in consumer
surplusthe part represented by areas B and D is not transferred to the government or to
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
producersit is just benefit that is lost. This is a loss of efficiency. Areas B + D represent
deadweight loss caused by the tariff. Tariffs create inefficiencies in two ways. First, some
mutually beneficial trades go unexploited: some consumers who are willing to pay more
than the world price, PW, do not purchase the good. The cost of this inefficiency is
represented in Figure 8 by area D. Second, the economys resources are wasted on
inefficient production: some producers whose cost exceeds PW have the incentive to
produce the good, even though an additional unit of the good can be purchased abroad
for PW. The cost of this inefficiency is represented in Figure 8 by area B.
Figure 8:
CHANGE IN SURPLUS
Gain
Loss
A+B+C+D
Consumer Surplus
Producer Surplus
A
Government Revenue
C
B+D
Change in Total Surplus
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Sample Multiple Choice Questions
1. What might occur in an open economy if Mexicans were to purchase maple syrup
from Canada?
a. Canadians would have more money to spend on Mexican vacations.
b. Canadian consumers would suffer as their supply of maple syrup declined.
c. Canadians would ask for trade restrictions.
d. Mexican consumers would benefit from a greater producer surplus.
e. Canadian producers would lose their absolute advantage in maple syrup
production.
If Mexicans purchased maple syrup from Canada, Canadian producers would receive
payment from Mexican consumers. The producers would then have more money to spend
on Mexican vacations or elsewhere if that was their desire.
2. What factors would determine the world price for shoes?
a. a negotiated compromise between the two trading nations.
b. recent breakdowns in GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)
negotiations.
c. the interaction of supply and demand in the world market.
d. the interaction of supply and demand in the domestic market.
e. the opportunity cost of shoes in terms of maple syrup.
The world price of shoes as for other commodities is established by the interaction of supply
and demand in the world market.
3. If the Mexican government assessed a tariff on imported maple syrup, what effect
would this tariff have on the price and quantity of maple syrup imported into Mexico?
a. Canada would no longer have a comparative advantage in maple syrup due to the
change in opportunity cost caused by the tariff.
b. Mexican producers would bear the tax burden.
c. Mexican consumers would purchase less maple syrup.
d. Mexican import revenues on maple syrup would decrease.
e. Consumer surplus in Mexico would increase by the area of the tariff revenue.
The tariff would cause the price of maple syrup in Mexico to rise. As a result of the higher
price, Mexican consumers would purchase less of the commodity.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
4. In one month, Quebec can produce 10 liters of maple syrup or 100 shoes. In the same
time period, Oaxaca can produce 5 liters of maple syrup or produce 75 shoes. When
Mexico and Canada begin trading maple syrup and shoes, we could expect:
a. the price of maple syrup in Canada to fall from the closed economy price.
b. the price of maple syrup in Canada to rise from the closed economy price.
c. the price of maple syrup in Canada to remain unchanged.
d. the price of maple syrup in Canada to be 7.5 liters of maple syrup.
e. Canadian producers of maple syrup to oppose trade.
In Quebec, one liter of maple syrup costs 10 shoes. In Oaxaca, one liter of maple syrup costs
15 shoes. Consequently, maple syrup is relatively more expensive in Oaxaca and very likely
will sell for a higher price in that market. As a result of trade, Canadians would find it
beneficial to sell the maple syrup in a market where it will yield a higher price. This
exportation will decrease the supply in the Canadian market and raise the price.
20
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Sample Free Response Question
Assume that Canada imports shoes from Mexico and that the price of shoes in Mexico is
lower than the domestic price of shoes in Canada.
i) Explain what happens to the market price and quantity of shoes in Canada as a
result of trade. Use a diagram to illustrate your answer.
ii) Show how trade affects producer surplus in Canada and explain how trade affects
the Canadian producers.
iii) What trade policies might the Maple Leaf Boot Company, a Canadian
manufacturer of footwear ask the government of Canada to implement? How
would your policy affect Canadian producers were the policy to be adopted?
21
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Answer Key
i) As a result of the world price of shoes in Mexico being lower than in Canada,
Canadians will purchase shoes at a lower price than beforetherefore, the price of
shoes purchased will decrease and the quantity purchased will increase.
Figure i:
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
ii) Producer surplus for Canadian producers falls, with the lower price they face for
their shoe production. The lost producer surplus is transferred to consumer
surplus, as they now pay a lower price for shoes they purchase. This is illustrated
in the diagram below. Consumer surplus increases by X + Z, and producer surplus
decreases by X.
Figure ii:
iii) The Maple Leaf Boot Company might ask for a tariff on imports of Mexican shoes
to stop the price of shoes from decreasing. If this policy were adopted, Canadian
producers would gain at least some of the producer surplus that they lost as a
result of free trade.
23
Curriculum Module: International Economics
The Basics of Absolute and Comparative
Advantage
Peggy Pride
St. Louis University High School
St. Louis, Missouri
The inclusion of the topic of comparative advantage in the AP Microeconomics Course
Description outline and summary helps students to see how trade can solve the scarcity
problem, since we face a limited set of resources. Specialization and international trade
increase the productivity and efficient use of a nations resource base and allow for a
larger total output. A discussion of these topics works well within broader teaching on
opportunity cost, developing the use of production possibility curves.
Learning Objectives
1. Students will be able to define specialization and relate its definition to resource
use.
2. Students will be able to comprehend the basis for trade using the two concepts
of absolute and comparative advantage.
3. Students will be able to visually demonstrate their understanding of these
concepts by using Production Possibility curves.
Basic Terms
Specialization occurs when workers or nations concentrate on what they do best. It
usually means improved quality and/or increases in output.
Absolute Advantage is the ability to produce a good or service more efficientlya lower
cost of resourcesthan another producer.
Comparative Advantage is the ability to produce a good or service at a lower
opportunity cost than another producer. Resources are scarce, so that one can only
produce more of one product by taking the resources away from another.
Starter activity or discussion starter
1. As a discussion starter using a primary source, try:
http://www.econlib.org/Library/Topics/Details/comparativeadvantage.html
Of particular interest at this link for The Library of Economics and Liberty is
the excerpt from David Ricardo. He compares Portugals production of wine
with Englands production of cloth to illustrate the benefits of specialization
and trade.
24
Curriculum Module: International Economics
2. Asking this set of questions will start the thinking process of connecting the ideas
to concepts learned earlier:
Why do people trade?
Both parties gain. Just as individuals specialize, so do nations, gaining greater
output and income. (A gain in the ability to consume more goods and services
moves the production possibility curve to the right.)
Why does a school hire a teacher who has a degree in teaching?
Both parties gain. Students can gain the greatest benefit in their educational
pursuit and the teacher teaches to satisfy a need for income and to gain a good
feeling about the employment. (Efficient use of human resources.)
Why do I teach economics?
Both parties gain. Students enrolled in AP Economics gain the greatest benefit,
while the teacher gains a greater income and feeling of satisfaction by specializing.
(Specialization increases efficient resource use.)
Why does the U.S. import bananas?
U.S. farmers could grow bananas, but it would be very expensive; they gain more
by growing wheat and trading it for bananas. (Our resources are better suited to
growing wheat, so we specialize.)
Lesson
1. Use the Lecture Notes given to explore the ideas of
Economic Basis of Trade
Specialization
Comparative and Absolute Advantage
2. Use the Activity Page given to aid student understanding in terms of how
opportunity costs are measured to derive the comparative advantage.
3. Integrate the given Multiple-Choice Questions and Free Response Question into
the first unit test in your AP Microeconomics course.
25
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Lecture Notes
From The Wealth of Nations, written in 1776 by Adam Smith:
In every country it always is and must be the interest of the great body of the people to
buy whatever they want of those who sell it cheapest.10
Economic Basis for Trade
1. Uneven Distribution of Economic Resources. Since resources worldwide are not
equally available, nations have differences in opportunity costs and thus comparative
advantage exists.
2. Different Technologies and/or Resources are present worldwide. Based on the skills
and innovative characteristics of a nations entrepreneurs, a sharing of the benefits of
increased technology can benefit all.
3. Goods Are Differentiated as to Quality and Other Non-Price Attributes.
Individuals often will choose products that have unique characteristics of quality or
desirability found only through trade with other nations.
Specialization occurs when workers or nations concentrate on what they do best. It
usually means improved quality and/or increases in output.
1. Labor-Intensive Goods
Goods that require a large amount of labor to be produced.
i. Japan with its large, well-educated workforce can produce high-quality
electronics efficiently.
2. Land-Intensive Goods
Goods that require a large amount of usable land to be produced.
i. Canada has large open spaces suitable for growing corn and growing and
harvesting trees for wood and paper.
ii. Brazil has the tropical climate of high temperature and rainfall with rich
soil to grow tea. Their large, unskilled labor force is also a benefit for tea
production.
3. Capital-Intensive Goods
Goods that require a large amount of capital goods to be produced.
10
Smith, Adam. (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Book 4,
chap. 3. Location: Publisher - verified by The Library of Economics and Liberty Web site.
http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN14.html#B.IV,%20Ch.3,%20Of%20the%20extraor
dinary%20Restraints%20upon%20the%20Importation%20of%20Goods%20of%20almost%20all
%20Kinds
26
Curriculum Module: International Economics
i.
The United States can more easily produce large agricultural and earth
moving equipment, automobiles, and chemicals, since it has large
manufacturing facilities with extensive capital equipment.
Comparative advantage is the ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity
cost than another producer. Resources are scarce: one can only produce more of one
product by taking the resources away from another.
Absolute advantage is the ability to produce a good or service more efficiently
at a lower cost of resourcesthan other producers. To find comparative
advantage for two nations, do not compare their absolute advantage in
production. Examine opportunity cost to determine comparative advantage.
Total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the nation that has
lowest domestic opportunity cost for that good.
As a result of trade, countries that specialize and export products for which they
have a comparative advantage can have more of both products (what is produced
and what it is traded for).
Two countries are considering trading two products, which they both produce:
Figure 1: Production Possibility Curves
Tea (Tons)
Tea (Tons)
20
30
10
3
16
Corn (tons)
Nation A
7
10
Corn (tons)
Nation B
1. These production possibility curves show the combinations of tea and corn that
can be produced by each of these nations without trade assuming constant
opportunity costs.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
2. With this data, one can see that Nation A can produce any combination of tea and
corn along its production possibility curve and Nation B can produce any
combination of tea and corn along its own production possibility curve.
3. Nation A has comparative advantage in corn since it has an opportunity cost of
one ton of tea for 1 ton of corn and an opportunity cost of one ton of corn for one
ton of tea.
4. Nation B has a comparative advantage in tea since it has an opportunity cost of
two tons of tea for one ton of corn and an opportunity cost of ton of corn for
one ton of tea.
5.
Assume that the outputs before specialization are:
Nation A produces 16 tons of corn and 10 tons of tea
Nation B produces seven tons of corn and three tons of tea
6. If both nations specialize in the good in which they hold the Comparative
Advantage . . . Nation A will produce 30 tons of corn and Nation B will produce
20 tons of tea.
7. Terms of trade analysis asks the question: At what rate of exchange will trade take
place? For this example terms of trade must lie between 1 ton of corn = 1 ton of
tea and 1 ton of corn = 2 tons of tea. Each nation needs to gain from the exchange,
so Nation A needs to buy more than one ton of tea for one ton of corn and Nation
B needs to buy one ton of corn for less than two tons of tea. The actual ratio
depends on the world supply and demand for these goods.
8. Lets assume that the terms of trade are 1 ton of corn = 1.5 tons of tea. The
following chart shows the gains from trade using this assumption.
Nation
Outputs before
specialization
Outputs after
specialization
A
16 corn
30 corn
-10 corn
20 corn
4 corn
10 tea
0 tea
+ 15 tea
15 tea
5 tea
7 corn
0 corn
+ 10 corn
10 corn
3 corn
3 tea
20 tea
-15 tea
5 tea
2 tea
B
Amount exported Outputs available
(-) or imported (+)
after trade
28
Gains from trade
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Conclusion
By using their comparative advantage and agreeing to the stated terms of trade, both
Nation A and Nation B will gain more corn AND more tea. Note that each nation has
expanded its consumption possibilities frontier with trade. This is the equivalent of
having more and better resources or discovering new production methods.
Figure 2:
29
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Student Activity SheetComparative and Absolute Advantage
1. Define Comparative Advantage:
2. Define Absolute Advantage:
Chipland and Entertainia
Two nations that currently produce their own computer chips and CD players
Required Inputs Without Trade
Product
Chipland
Entertainia
1 Computer Chip
5 hours
24 hours
1 CD Player
10 hours
12 hours
Total
15 hours
36 hours
3. Who has the absolute advantage in computer chip production?
How do you know?
4. Who has the absolute advantage in CD player production?
How do you know?
5. Why would that nation care about trade?
6. Calculate the Opportunity Cost of production (fill in the chart)
Product
Chipland
1 Computer Chip
1 CD Player
30
Entertainia
Curriculum Module: International Economics
7. Who has the comparative advantage in production of computer chips?
8. Who has the comparative advantage in CD player production?
9. With Specialization in place, complete this chart:
Consumption With Trade
Chipland
Entertainia
1 Computer Chip for Chipland
1 CD Player for Entertainia
1 Computer Chip for Entertainia
1 CD Player for Chipland
Total
Total
10. Discuss the gains from trade based on the data given.
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Sample Testing Questions
1. When a nation is specializing in the production of a product for which it has least
opportunity cost in relation to another nation, it is
a. achieving full employment of its resources
b. specializing in its comparative advantage
c. specializing in its absolute advantage
d. maximizing exchange between businesses and households
e. achieving economic growth in its own economy
2. Specialization in production is important primarily because it:
a. results in a greater output for society
b. allows society to avoid the unequal distribution problem
c. allows society to inefficiently use its scarce resources
d. allows society to trade by barter
e. allows society to have fewer capital goods
3. According to the table, which of the following is true?
Books
Computers
Altunia
80
40
Batavia
50
20
a. Altunia has an absolute advantage in producing both goods and a comparative
advantage in producing computers.
b. Batavia has an absolute advantage in producing both goods and a comparative
advantage in producing books.
c. Neither country has an absolute advantage in production.
d. Altunia has an absolute advantage in producing both goods and a comparative
advantage in producing books.
e. There can be no gains from trade between these two countries.
4. What is Batavias opportunity cost per book?
a. 50 computers
b. 150 books
c. 0.4 computers
d. 2.5 computers
e. 1,000 computers
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Answer Key
1. b
Comparative Advantage is the ability to produce a good or service at a lower
opportunity cost than another producer. As nations produce at their comparative
advantage, and engage in free trade they gain more output for their citizens.
2. a
Specialization occurs when workers or nations concentrate on what they do best. It
usually means improved quality and/or increases in output.
3. a
With a days resources, Altunia can produce more of each good and thus has an
absolute advantage in producing both goods. However, producing one book costs
Altunia two computers, whereas producing a book costs Batavia 2.5 computers.
Altunia therefore has a comparative advantage in producing books.
4. c
Producing 50 books uses up resources with which Batavia could produce 20
computers, so each books costs Batavia 2.5 computers.
33
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Free Response Question
Assume that Countries X and Y have equal amounts of resources and identical
technology. Country X can produce 100 bushels of corn or 100 yards of cloth or any
combination as shown in line AB. Country Y can produce 100 bushels of corn or 200
yards of cloth or any combination as shown in line CD.
1. Which country has the Absolute Advantage in the production of corn and which
has the Absolute Advantage in the production of cloth? How do you know?
2. Which country has the Comparative Advantage in the production of corn and
which has the Comparative Advantage in the production of cloth? Explain.
3. With specialization and trade, which country will import corn?
4. Assume that the countries trade and that one bushel of wheat is exchanged for
two yards of cloth, what will the country that imports corn gain from trade?
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Curriculum Module: International Economics
Answer Key
1. Neither country has the absolute advantage in the production of corn. Country Y
has the absolute advantage in the production of cloth since it can make more.
2. Country X gives up 1 yard of cloth for 1 bushel of corn, while Country Y gives up
2 yards of cloth for 1 bushel of corn. It is relatively more expensive for Country Y
to produce corn so Country X has the comparative advantage in the production of
corn and Country Y has a comparative advantage to produce cloth.
3. Country Y will import corn.
4. Country Y using trade will gain more of each good. Specialization and trade
increases Country Ys consumption possibilities making it possible to consume
more of both.
35
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Contributors
Linda M. Manning has taught first year economics at colleges and universities in the
United States and Canada for 20 years. She served as a faculty Reader and Table Leader at
the annual AP Economics Examination Readings for 10 years, was a member of the AP
Economics Test Development Committee for 3 years, and co-moderated the AP
Economics listserve for several years. She taught at the University of Missouri-Rolla from
19892001, where she served as the director of the Center for Economic Education.
Currently at the University of Ottawa, she teaches economics as well as a course for future
professors titled, Theory and Practice of University Teaching. In 2006 she coauthored
Krugman & Wells Economics AP Economics Teaching Tool Kit (Worth Publishers) to
accompany the Krugman & Wells Economics (AP Version)11 textbook for AP teachers,
with Bill McCormick. Linda received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois at Chicago
in 1990.
Bill McCormick has served as a teacher of economics and AP Microeconomics in
Richland District Two (in Columbia, South Carolina) for 24 years. He has taught AP
Microeconomics for the last 10 years and served as a Reader for AP Microeconomics for
the past 6 years. He also serves as an adjunct faculty member of Southern Wesleyan
University teaching International Business and other management courses to adult
professionals. Bill received his undergraduate degree from the University of South
Carolina in 1975 (B.A. in Education) and an MBA in 1978.
Peggy Pride received both an undergraduate degree in history and economics (1971) and
a masters degree in business education (1986) from Southern Illinois University at
Edwardsville. She has taught at St. Louis University High School since August of 1981 and
currently teaches four sections of AP Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. She was
given the Teacher of the Year Award by the Global Association of Teachers of Economics
in 2005. Peggy has been the Micro Question Leader at the annual Reading for the past
four years, and served for five years on the AP Economics Development Committee, and
was the content advisor for AP Central Economics.
Arthur Raymond is the head of the Accounting, Business, and Economics Department at
Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pennsylvania. A former member of the Development
Committee, he currently serves as the Chief Reader for AP Microeconomics and AP
Macroeconomics.
11
Per Bedford, Freeman, & Worth Web site:
http://www.bfwpub.com/highschool/newcatalog.aspx?isbn=071678355X&disc=HS&course=Soc
ial+Studies&detail=supplements
36
Curriculum Module: International Economics
Editor/College Board Advisor
Richard K. Rankin has taught AP Microeconomics and AP Macroeconomics at Iolani
High School in Honolulu, Hawaii, since 1994. Dick holds a bachelors degree in
economics from the Virginia Military Institute, an MBA from Shippensburg University,
and a masters in economics from the University of Texas at Austin. He is a retired
colonel having served in the U.S. Army for 26 years. While on active duty, he taught
Principles of Economics and was the course director for sophomore economics at the
U.S. Military Academy at West Point, and at the University of Maryland. He was selected
as the NASDAQ National Economics Teacher of the Year in 2001, and was selected as the
Department of Social Sciences Outstanding Teacher of the Year at West Point. Dick has
served as a Reader for the AP Microeconomics Exam and as a Reader, as well as Table
Leader, for the AP Macroeconomics Exam. Dick is a former Development Committee
member, and is a board member on the Hawaii Council for Economic Education. He is
the author of Money Management for Starters.
37