210 FSN Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
Final Exam: Monday 12/5 from 10 AM to 1 PM. 150 points. The final exam will be structured like the midterm; mostly
multiple choice questions with one or two key short-answer, open-ended questions per chapter. The open-ended questions
will often be based on the Knowledge Check questions at the end of each section.
Nutrition basics from before the midterm to keep in mind for the final exam.
1. What is nutrition? What is a nutrient..and what are the six major classes?
science of food; the nutrients and the substances therein; their action, interaction and blance in relation to health and disease; and
the process by which the organism ingests, digests, absorbs, transports, utilizes, and excretes food substances.
Carbs (4), proteins (4), water, fat (9 kcal), vitamins, and minerals.
2. What is meant by an essential vs. nonessential nutrient?
Essential: a substance that when left ``q out of a diet leads to signs of poor health because the body cant produce this nutrient
or produce enough of it to meet its needs. If added back to a diet before permanent damage occurs, the affected aspects of health
are restored.
3. What is the definition of a calorie (as in kcalorie)? How many calories per gram are associated with each nutrient?
Calorie: amount of heat energy it take to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. 1000 calories, amount of heat
to raise the temperature of 1000 g of water 1 degree Celsius. Alcohol (7)
4. Be able to convert grams of a nutrient to kcals and kcals of a nutrient to grams.
5. What are the DRIs, RDAs, EARs, AIs and ULs and how do they differ from each other?
LOOK AT PREVIOUS SG AND MEMORIZE, DAMMIT
6. What is nutrient densitycan you recognize a nutrient dense vs. non-nutrient dense food? How does this differ from caloric
density?
Nutrient Density: ratio derived by dividing a foods contribution to nutrient needs by its contribution to energy needs. When its
contribution to nutrient needs exceeds its energy contribution, the food is considered to have a favorable nutrient density.
o Ex: the orange has 108% of RDA and 4% of her daily calorie need.
o Divide the amount of a nutrient in a serving of the food by your DRI. Then divide the calories in a serving of the food by
your daily calorie need EER. Then compare it.
Calorie Density: comparing a foods calorie content per gram weight of food.
o Energy dense are high in calories and weight little (fried foods)
o Low energy density have a lot of water which makes them weight more but contain few calories (fruits)
7. What are the micronutrients and the macronutrients?
Micro: nutrient needed in milligram or microgram quantities in the diet
Macro: nutrient needed in gram quantities
8. What are the organic nutrients? What are phytochemicals?
Organic: contains carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms
Phytochemicals: plant components in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains. Not essential nutrients, but provide health
benefits.
9. What is chemical and physical digestion and where do they each occur?
Chemical: saliva, stomach acid
Physical: in the mouth, grinding up of the food
10. What role do the stomach, sm intestine and lg intestine play in digestion/absorption?
LOOK AT PREVIOUS STUDY GUIDES
11. How is HCl acid involved in digestion? Why and how is the small intestine pH higher than the stomach?
HCl inactivates the biological activity of ingested proteins, and prevents them from affecting human functions. It also destroys most
harmful bacteria and viruses in foods; dissolves dietary minerals (calcium) so they can be easily absorbed; and converts pepsinogen
into the active protein digesting enzyme pepsin.
It is higher in the small intestine because the small intestine must be protected
12. What is an enzyme.what is a catalyst? What is a hormone?
Enzyme: Compound that speeds the rate of a chemical process but is not altered by the process. Almost all enzymes are proteins
Catalyst: Compound that speeds reaction rates but is not altered by the reaction
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
Hormone: Compound with a specific site of
synthesis that, when secreted in to the bloodstream,
controls the function of cells in its target organ or
organs. Hormones can be amino acidlike
(epinephrine), protenlike (insulin), or fatlike
(estrogen).
13. What are the differences in how water-soluble and fatsoluble nutrients are absorbed and enter the circulation?
Cardiovascular System: includes the heart, blood
vessels, and blood. For water-soluble (proteins,
carbs, short and medium-chain fatty acids, B
vitamins, and Vitamin C) are transported this way.
Are absorbed in to the bloodstream in the capillary
beds inside the villi. Blood flows from the capillary
beds and collects in the large portal vein, which
leads directly to the liver. This path allows the liver
to process absorbed nutrients before they enter the
general circulation. All blood leaving liver are rich
with nutrients and oxygen and travels to cells that
take it in, use it, and release carbon dioxide and
other waste. Waste goes to lungs and kidneys where
it is excreted.
Lymphatic System: contains lymph that flows
through the body in lymphatic vessels. If slowly
flows as muscles contract and squeeze the
lymphatic vessels. For large molecules/fat-soluble
nutrients (fats and vitamins A, D, E, and K). Is a
clear, colorless fluid and looks milky when it leaves
the small intestine. Special lymphatic vessels in the
villi transport nutrients to larger lymphatic vessels
that connect to the thoracic duct. It extends from the abdomen to the neck where it connects to the bloodstream at the left
subclavian vein. In the blood, nutrients re then transported to body tissues in the cardiovascular system.
14. Know the different ways nutrients can move across the cell membrane to enter cells.
Chapter 6: Lipids and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
1. Whats the difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (as far as hydrogen and double-bonds)?
Saturated: every carbon in the chain has formed with maximum 4 bonds. Each bond is formed with a separate atom (2 different
carbons and 2 different hydrogen). All the bonds between the carbons are single connections and the other carbon bonds are filled
with hydrogen. NO EMPTY SEATS ON BUS
Monounsaturated: carbons formed a double bond between each other by each giving up 1 hydrogen. Fatty acids that have 1 double
bond in the carbon change are monounsaturated. They have 1 location in the carbon chain that is not saturated withy hydrogen.
Polyunsaturated: at least 2 double bonds, with 2 empty seats
2. Whats the difference between cis and trans fatty acids?
Cis: is bent; hydrogen attached to the double-bonded carbons are on the same side of the carbon chain.
o Most unprocessed unsaturated fatty acids (oils from uts and seeds)
Trans: hydrogen attached to the double-bonded carbons zigzag back and forth across the carbon chain.
o Saturated fatty acid
3.
Hydrogenation: adds hydrogen to chainchanging shape of structure because it creates trans fatty acids that have a straighter
shape than cis fatty acids
Know the functions of body fat. What are the essential fatty acids? Are they omega-3 or omega-6? What types of foods are good
sources of each?
Provide energy: provides 9 calories; main fuel source for all body cells, except the nervous system and red blood cells.
Provide compact energy storage: amount you can store is limitless
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
4.
5.
Insulate and protect the body: keep body temperature at a constant level.
Aid fat-soluble vitamin absorption and transport: Vitamins A, D, E, and K are in fats in food, which assists in absorption
Aid essential fatty acid functions: keep cell wall fluid and flexible s substance flow into and out of cell.
o Alpha-linoleic acid is omega 3 (cold water fish, walnuts, and flaxseed. Fish oil)
o Linoleic acid is omega 6 (beef, poultry, sunflower oil, corn oil)
o Omega-3 needed for normal development and function of retina
What factors determine the hardness of a fat at a given temperature?
Hydrogenation/the amount of hydrogen. As the amount of added hydrogen increases, the unsaturated fat becomes more and more
saturated and increasingly solid.
How much fat should we eat and which types (SFAs, MUFAs, PUFAs)? What percentage of fats in foods are triglycerides? What are
two major dietary sources of monounsaturated fatty acids? Major sources of PUFAs?
Total Fat: 20-35% of calories
Saturated: Lowest possible
Trans: Low as possible
Unsat: most fat
O6: 5% of calories
O3: .6-1.2% of calories
6. Functions of fats in foods? What is the major site of fat digestion (hydrolysis)?
Fat Digestion begins in the mouth where lingual lipase is secreted (breaks down triglycerides with short and medium chin fatty
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acids found in milk fat). In the stomach, gastric lipase breaks triglycerides into monoglycerides, diglycerides, and free fatty acids.
Occurs most in small intestine to trigger CCK to trigger bile that emulsifies fats.
Phospholipids and cholesterol are digested mostly in the small intestine to break it down to: glycerol, fatty acids, phosphoric acid,
and other components.
How do the types of fatty acids in a food determine its stability, shelf life and whether it will be a liquid or solid? Where do we get
trans fatty acids in our diet?
What is the process of how atherosclerosis (CVD) develops?
Atherosclerotic plaque forms causing arteries to harden, narrow, and become less elastic making them unable to expand to
accommodate the normal ups and downs of blood pressure. Damaged further as plaque-clogged artery blocks the flow of blood and
leads to a heart attack or stroke.
Cholesterol which types of foods contain it? Is it made in the body? What can be made from cholesterol? How does fiber change
blood cholesterol? What is the recommended amount for the diet?
Foods of animal origin, such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.
Replenishes bile stores and make steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogens, the active from of vitamin D hormone, and
corticosteroids. Forms cell membranes and allow fat-soluble substances to move into and out of cell.
Lipoproteins where are each of them made? What is the function of each type? Which are the largest in size? Which are good or
bad in relation to cholesterol and heart disease? Which lipoproteins are cholesterol-rich?
Chylomicron: made in the absorptive cells of the intestine; secreted from the intestinal cells into the lymphatic system via the
lacteals in the intestinal villi.
VLDL: from the liver
LDL: in the liver and other cells. BADonly a problem when there is too much in the blood.
HDL: produced in liver and intestine, move heavy/dense lipoprotein. Picks up cholesterol from dying cells and donates it to other
lipoproteins for transport back to the liver to be excreted. Low HDL levels=higher risk because little blood cholesterol is
transported back to the liver and
excreted. GOOD
Chapter 7: Proteins and Amino Acids
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
Chapter Vocabulary: Transamination, deamination, limiting amino acid, peptide bond, DNA transcription, denaturation, protein quality,
allergens,
1. How many amino acids does the body use to make proteins? What makes amino acids different from each other? What element
makes proteins different from carbohydrate and fats?
20 differ
Proteins have nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
The side change (R portion) determines the name of the amino acid
2. What are the three nutritional classes of amino acids (essential, etc?) Can you provide
an example of each? What are complementary proteins?
Essential: amino acids that the human body cannot synthesize in sufficient
amounts or at all and therefore must be included in the diet
Nonessential: bodies can make them; human body can synthesize in sufficient
amounts
Conditionally essential: when one has limited ability to metabolize the essential
amino acid due to infancy, trauma, or disease.
Complementary: when 2 or more plant proteins are combined to compensate for
deficiencies in essential amino acid content in each protein,
3. Do you know the basics of how a protein is synthesized in the body? What do we mean
by the primary,
secondary and tertiary structure of proteins? Can you explain protein turnover? Why is it
important?
Transamination: transfer of an amino group from 1 amino acid to a carbon
skeleton to form a new amino acid.
Deamination: lost amino group without transferring it to another carbon skeleton.
Transcription and Translation
o DNA unwinds to allow coding; transcription into mRNA, DNA stays in nucleus and mRNA travels to the cytosol where
the ribosomes read the codons and translate it to produce a protein (starts at AUG). tRNA bring amino acids to the
ribosomes as needed, they have complementary code to the mRNA adding to the polypeptide chain until the stop codon is
reached. The polypeptide is released from the ribosome when it encounters the ending codon.
Primary: the shape, sequential order of amino acids. Amino Acids must be accurately positioned in order for the amino acids to
interact and fold correctly into the intended shape for the protein. Allows chemical bonds to form between amino acids near each
other and stabilizes the structure
Secondary: spiral like shape, areas that have hydrogen and sulfur bonds (chemical).
Tertiary: 3 dimensional conformation of a protein determines its physiological function. If it fails to form appropriate
configuration, it cannot function.
Protein turnover: allows cells to adapt to changing circumstances. Process by which a cell can respond to its changing environment
and produce needed proteins while reducing the production
4. What are the major food sources of proteins? How much protein per kilogram of body weight do humans require?
Meat, poultry, fish, milk and other milk products, legumes, and nuts.
.8g/kg body weight 125 lb women
5. Explain the three main functions of protein. What are kwashiorkor and marasmus? What is edema and what causes it?
Producing Vital Body Structures; Maintaining Fluid Balance; Contributing to Acid-Base Balance; Forming Hormones, Enzymes,
and Neurotransmitters, Contributing to Immune Function; Transporting Nutrients; Forming Glucose; and Providing Energy.
Kwashikor: condition occurring in young kids who have an existing disease and consume a marginal amount of energy and
severely insufficient protein. Results in edema, poor growth, weakness, and increased susceptibility to further infection and
disease. BIG TUMMY
o Minimal amounts of protein and moderate energy deficit
Marasmus: Condition results from a severe deficit of energy and protein, which causes extreme loss of fat stores, muscle mass, and
strength. Death from infections is common.
o Minimal amounts of energy, protein and other nutrients
Edema: Buildup of excess fluid, caused by inadequate protein when the concentration of proteins eventually decreases in the
bloodstream, Excessive fluid then builds up in the surrounding tissues because the counteracting force produced by the smaller
amount of blood proteins is too weak to pull enough of the fluid back from the tissues into the bloodstream.
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
6. How are proteins digested and absorbed? What are the roles of pepsin and HCl and where are they active?
Begins in stomach with the secretion of hydrochloric acid. Once proteins are denatured by stomach acid, pepsin breaks the
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8.
polypeptide chains into shorter chains of amino acids through hydrolysis reactions. In small intestine, CCK is triggered and
stimulates the pancreas to release the protease and other protein splitting enzymes.
Pepsin: released by the hormone gastrin; prevents the acid from digesting the stomach lining; in stomach
HCl: activates pepsin; in stomach
What happens if we eat too much protein? What is urea and how is it excreted?
High protein diets may overburden the kidneys capacity to excrete nitrogen wastes. Additionally, inadequate fluid intake can
increase the risk of dehydration as the kidneys use body water to dispose of the urea. Urea: excess nitrogen
More animal proteins are rich in saturated fat and cholesterol and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Increase urinary calcium loss and leads to a loss of bone mass and osteoporosis.
What are the differences between the different types of vegetarians?
Vegan, Lacto-ovo-vegetarians and Lacto-vegetarians
Chapter 9 Metabolism
Chapter vocabulary: anabolism, catabolism, metabolic pathway, intermediates, coenzyme, cellular respiration, oxidation (betaoxidation), ketosis, gluconeogenesis.
11. What do the Citric Acid Cycle (or tricarboxylic acid cycle [TCA] or Krebs Cycle) and Electron Transport Chain do? Where are
they located in a cell? Which of these pathways are aerobic and which are anaerobic? What is the difference in the number of ATP
created? How is lactate involved?
Aerobic: 30-32 ATP; Anaerobic: 2 ATP
Look at SG
12. What 2-carbon molecule is in common to all of metabolic pathways that breakdown proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and alcohol for
energy? What is the major energy molecule produced by metabolic pathways and used by cells (think high energy bonds)? How
are catabolic and anabolic reactions related to energy usage and production?
Acetyl-CoA
ATP
Catabolic: break down compounds into small units
o Glycogen being broke down to glucose molecules
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Anabolic: use simpler compounds to build larger more complex compounds.
o Glucose, fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids to make glycogen, hormones, enzymes, and other proteins
Start with glucose: what is the 3- carbon molecule at the end of glycolysis? What are the four phases of carbohydrate metabolism?
What is Gluconeogenesis? Which molecules of the energy pathways can be used to synthesize glucose when it is required by the
body?
Pyruvate
Glycolysis, Acetyl-CoA, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain
Gluconeogenesis: synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources
Carbs and Proteins, and Glycerol (fatty acids)?
Can we make glucose from acetyl CoA? Which 2-carbon molecules are made from breaking down fatty acids? What percentage of
a triglyceride can be used to make glucose? Does fatty acid oxidation require oxygen?
No
2-carbon compound acetyl-CoA?
Yes?
What is the preferred source of energy for the brain? What happens to energy usage by the brain during short-term and long-term
fasting? What pathway predominates in short term fasting? In longer term fasting?
Carbohydrates
Energy usage: slowing metabolic rate and reduction in energy requirements. Slow breakdown of lean tissue to supply amino acids
for gluconeogenesis, Nervous system to use less glucose (less body protein) and more ketone bodies.
o Short term: body protein broke down
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
Short term: Glycogen stores are depleted, which causes the rapid use of carbon skeletons of certain amino acids from body protein
to produce glucose. This supplies glucose to glucose dependent cells.
Long term: reduced break down of body protein and increased use of adipose stores, which are used to produce ketones. Ketones
provide a significant proportion of the fuel required by glucose-dependent cells, thereby sparing body protein and prolonging life.
Chapter 10 Energy Balance, Weight Control, and Eating Disorders
Chapter vocabulary: Energy balance: positive, negative and energy equilibrium; basal metabolic rate, resting metabolic rate, estimated
energy requirements, body mass index (BMI), set point theory, disordered eating, eating disorder.
1. Know the three main components of Energy Expenditure and how does each relate to total calorie expenditure? What is the major
component affecting BMR?
Basal Metabolism: minimum amount of energy at fasting state (12+ hours) to keep a resting awake body alive in a warm, quiet
environment. 60-70% of total energy expenditurebeating of the heart, respiration by the lungs, and the activity of other organs
such as liver, brain, and kidney.
Energy for Physical Activity: increases energy expenditure and beyong basal energy needs by as much as 25-40%. In choosing to
be active or inactive, we determine our total expenditure for a day.
Thermic Effect on Food: energy the body uses to digest, absorb, transport, store, and metabolize the nutrients consumed in the diet.
Lean body mass is most important component affecting BMR
2. What is the difference between appetite and hunger? How are intake and satiety regulated? How are the hypothalamus and adipose
tissue involved? What is leptin and what is its role in maintaining body weight? The role of ghrelin?
Appetite: the psychological drive to eat, affected mostly by external factors that encrouage us to eat such as social custom, time of
day, mood.
Hunger: physiological drive to find and eat food controlled by internal body mechanisms, such as organs, hormones, and the
nervous system
Satiety: satisfaction and no drives to eat. The yhypothalamus communitcates with the endocrine and nervous systems and
integrates many internal cutes, including blood glucose levels, hormone secretions, and sympathetic nervous system activity that
inhibit and encourage food intake.
o Ghelrin: hormone that promotes short term satiety
o Adipose tissues stores are decreasing, leptin production drops and the desire to eat is enhanced. Leptin influences the long
term regulation of fat mass. Leptin signals low body fat stores and sets in motion adaptions that promote energy
conservation, delaying the effects of starvation.
3. What is the BMI and what is the formula (in kg and meters)? How does it correlate to mortality? According to BMI, when is an
individual considered: Normal weight? Overweight? Obese? Approximately what percentage or fraction of people in the U.S. is
considered to be overweight?
BMI: the preferred weight-for-height standard because it is closely related to fat content.
o Body weight (in kg)/height^2 in meters
o Body weight (in lb) x 703/Height^2 (in inches)
4.
5.
6.
Healthy: 18.5-24.9; Overweight: 25-29.9;
Over 24% for men, and over 35% for women are obese.
What are the different types of Body Fat Distribution and which is more of a health risk? What are the health risks of high body
weight and body fat?
Upper body: cardiovascular disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes. Release fat directly to liver, which interferes with ability to
clear insulin and alters the livers lipoprotein metabolism.
Pearlike
At what percentage body fat are men and women considered obese? Above what waist circumference is it considered a health risk
for men and women?
Men: 40 inches men. 35 inches women
Over 24% for men, and over 35% for women are obese.
What are three key components to sound, safe weight loss? What are four behaviors that help keep lost weight off? Why cant rapid
weight loss consist mainly of fat?
Control Energy Intake, Regular Physical Activity, and Control of problem behaviors.
Eat low fat, high carb diet; Ear breakfast; self-monitor by regularly weighing and keeping food journal; have physical activity plan
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
7.
High energy deficit is needed to lose a large amount of adipose tissue. Lean tissue and water account for the major part of the
weight loss when weight loss exceeds a few pounds weekly.
What is the difference between disordered eating and eating disorders? What makes someone susceptible to an eating disorder?
What are the physical effects and the characteristics of anorexia nervosa? Of Bulimia nervosa?
Disordered eating: mild and short term changes in eating patterns that occur in response to a stressful event, an illness, or a desire
to modify the diet for health and or personal appearance.
for Susceptible genetic, psychological, and physical reasons
Anorexia: hair loss, fainting, loss of heart tissue, lanugo, loss of periods, low bone mass, low body temperature, bruising
Bulimia: swollen salivary glands, irritation of esophagus, stomach ulcers
Chapter 12 Fat-Soluble Vitamins
1. What are the defining
the body
some of
absorption of
Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed along
2. Know the functions of each of the fat-soluble vitamins. What happens in a
occur?
UL? What are the sources for
LOOK AT CHART
characteristics of all vitamins?
What is the difference between
the fat-soluble and the watersoluble vitamins? Which type
of vitamin is more likely to have
toxicity at high levels? Where in
are the vitamins absorbed? What are
the primary reasons for poor
vitamins?
with dietary fat.
Essential, organic
substances needed in
small amounts that do not
provide energy.
Fat soluble is more toxic, Vitamins
absorbed in small intestine.
Poor absorption may be
because of fat malabsorption,
alcohol abuse, and certain
intestinal diseases.
deficiency of each one? Be able to
identify the disease caused by a
deficiency of a particular
vitamin. When does a deficiency
Which of the fat-soluble vitamins have a
each of the vitamins?
3. Why do we talk about preformed vitamin A and pro-vitamin A? What are the names of the three retinoids and the major
carotenoids? Which of these are essential in the diet? How can they be converted to one another in the body? Why are vitamin A
recommendations listed as RAEs? How is vitamin A involved in the vision cycle (generally)? How does vitamin A deficiency lead to
night blindness and blindness? What is xerophthalmia?
Provitamins: can be converted to vitamin A
o Alpha carotene, beta carotene, and beta cryptoxanthin
Preformed is already active and dont need to be converted to become biologically active.
o Retional (an alcohol); retinal (an aldehyde); and retinoic acid.
4.
Vitamin A is needed in the retina to turn visual light into nerve signals to the brain. When retional in the blood is insufficient to
replace the retinal lost during the visual cycle, the rods in the retina regenerate rhodopsin more slowly resulting in night blindles,
conjunctiva erosis, bitots spots, and xerophthalmia.
How and where is vitamin D made in the body and what does Vitamin D do? How is vitamin D activated in the body? What are
rickets and osteomalacia and what are the symptoms of each? Why does osteoporosis occur? Which vitamins are involved? Which
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
vitamins are involved in bone growth and maintenance? Why does vitamin D deficiency tend to be more common in the elderly
population? Why is vitamin D often classified as a conditional vitamin, or pro-hormone?
Made in the skin, activated when levels of calcium and phosphorus fall
Rickets: enlarged head, joints, and rib cage; deformed pelvis, and blowed legs. Bones weaken and bow under pressure
Osetomalacia: soft bones, fractures in hip, spine and other pones.
Elderly are more at risk because no sn exposure, reduced vitamin D levels from low intakes and impaired kidney function ) limits
conversion)
Depends on where you live
5. What does tocopherol mean and how many tocopherols are there? Which one of the tocopherols has the most significant activity in
the body and which is considered for the RDA? How does vitamin E function as an antioxidant? What is the major sign or
symptom of vitamin E deficiency? Why is there a UL for vitamin E?
Childbirth and to bear; there are 4 tocopherals (alpha, beta, gamma, delta)
Antioxidant that stops chain reactions caused by free radicals that can potentially damage cells. Free radicals are very unstable
compounds that have an unpaired electron acting as strong oxidizing agents which is destructive. Vitamin E acts primarily in lipidrich areas of the body where free radicals initiate a chain of reactions
Deficiency include cystic fibrosis (Crohns disease) by premature breakdown of red blood cells and the development of hemolytic
anemia. Impairs immune function and cause neurological changes in the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system.
It can interfere with the role of Vitamin K in blood clotting causing insufficient closing and risk of hemorrhaging.
6. What are two ways we can obtain vitamin K without a vitamin supplement? What are the two major roles of vitamin K in the
body? How is vitamin K related to blood clotting and calcium binding proteins?
Green leafy vegetables, broccoli, vegetable oils. Needed for synthesis of blood clotting factors by the liver and bone metabolism.
Vitamin K proteins contain Gla residues, which are needed to bind calcium and form blood clots.
Chapter 13 Water-Soluble Vitamins
1. Know the differences between the water-soluble vitamins and the fat-soluble vitamins in how they are absorbed, stored in the body
and excreted from the body.
Look at slides
2. What are the major functions of Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Biotin, Pantothenic Acid, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, and
vitamin C? What is a co-enzyme?
Co-enzyme are small organic molecules that are a type of cofactor (combine with inactive enzymes to from active enzymes to
catalyze specific reactions)
Look at chart
3. What are the major functions of each of the vitamins? What are the major food sources for each vitamin? What are the vitamins
and minerals that are included in the grain enrichment process in the U.S.?
Look at slides
4. What methods should be used to minimize the loss and/or breakdown of the vitamins in general prior to them being consumed? In
addition, thiamin and folate are especially susceptible to breakdown by heat while riboflavin is sensitive to UV light.
Look at chart for loss question
thiamin and folate are especially susceptible to breakdown by heat while riboflavin is sensitive to UV light.
5. Which of these vitamins have a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)? What are the symptoms of niacin toxicity and what is it called?
Look at chart
Niacin
6. What are the coenzyme forms of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and B6? How are each of them involved in specific parts of metabolism?
Thiamin: thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP)
Riboflavin: flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
Niacin: Co-enzymes NAD+ and NADPH--
B6: PLP coenzymeamino acid metabolism
Look at slides
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
7. What are the symptoms associated with or caused by a deficiency of each of the vitamins (except biotin and pantothenic acid)?
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12.
Which populations or groups of people tend to be susceptible to a deficiency for each?
Chart
What is Beriberi? Which people tend to be at risk and why?
Why is the recommendation for niacin in Niacin Equivalents? Why is protein intake considered when we calculate niacin
equivalents? What is pellagra?
To account for preformed niacin in foods and niacin synthesized from tryptophan.
Pellegra rough red rash that appears on skin exposed to sunlight: dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.
Why is the folate recommendation in DFEs? What is the difference between folate and folic acid in terms of sources in the diet?
How does folate deficiency lead to birth defects? Why is there an UL for folate?
DFEs reflect the differences in the absorption of food folate and synthetic folic acid.
Folate: liver, legumes, and leafy green vegetables. Folic Acid: bread and cereal products
Pregnant women have an increased need for this vitamin because of the increased rate of cell division and thus DNA synthesis
It may mask a vitamin B-12 deficiency
How is B12 released from foods and absorbed in the body? What is the R-protein and the intrinsic factor ? What are the reasons
certain people are more likely to develop B12 deficiency?
HCl and pepsin in gastric juice release the vitamin from proteins, where it binds to R-protein that originates in the salivary glands.
In the small intestine, enzymes release vitamin B-12 from the complex. B012 then combines with intrinsic factor (proteinlike
compound) produced by parietal cells in the stomach that goes to the ileum where the vitamin is absorbed and transferred to the
blood.
How does vitamin C function as an antioxidant? How is vitamin C involved with collagen synthesis? Why is it likely not helpful to
consume more vitamin C than 200 mg a day?
Donates electrons to free radicalscan donate electrons to free radicals if they become stable
Vitamin C Is needed to get the 3 strands of the polypeptide chain in collagen fibers to for ma triple helix. It helps convert the
structure of 2 amino acids in collagen to hydroxylysine and hydropxproline.
High doses can increase the risk of kindey stone formation and of excess iron absorption; can give false resulst in medical tests for
blood in stools
Chapter 14. Water and the Major Minerals
Chapter Vocabulary: Intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, interstitial and intravascular spaces, electrolytes, ions, cations, anions,
specific heat, osmosis, bioavailability, phytic acid (phytate), oxalic acid (oxalate), polyphenols
1. Is water stored in the body? Is water a component of the human body? Is it an essential nutrient?
Yes
2. What is an electrolyte? What is a cation? What is an anion? What are the major extracellular cations and anions? What are the
major intracellular cation and anions?
An electrolyte is a solute (fluid within extracellular compartment which includes interstitial fluid between cells and intravcascular
fluid in the blood and lymph). They form when salts dissociate in solution and form ions. Ions are charged particlespositively
charged electrolytes are cations (potassium and magnesium/sodium) and negative are anions (phosphate/chorlide, bicarbonate).
3. Does the sodium potassium pump use active or
passive transport to operate? Regarding the
sodium potassium pump -- what is maintained in high concentration
outside the cell versus maintained at high
concentration inside the cell?
Active Transport
o Potassium to inside the cell, and Sodium outside the cell.
4. How does water help us to maintain our body temperature? Which
beverage is more dehydrating: coffee or alcohol?
Water has a high heat capacity )specific heat) so water resists temperature
changes, and its temperature rises slowly when it is heated. This occurs because polar water molecules are strongly attracted to one
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
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another and a relatively large amount of heat is required to overcome this attraction. Sweat helps because heat energy is required to
evaporate water so as perspiration evaporates heat is taken from the skin.
Alcohol is more dehydrating
What are dietary and physiological factors that affect the bioavailability of minerals?
Bioavailability: degree to which the amount of an ingested nutrient is absorbed and is available n the body; genetic variations that
affect ability of plants and animals to absorb and store minerals, mineral composition of animal feed and medications, soil and
water mineral composition, and the mineral content of fertilizers and pesticides.
o Phytic acid, oxalic acid, polyphenols
o Vitamin C, gastric acidity
o Cookware, soil, processing
o Fortification and enrichment
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Phytc acid: constituent of plant fibers that binds positive ions to its multiple phostphate groups and decreases bioavailability
chemically binds them and prevents their release during diegestion
Oxalic acid: organic acid found in spanich and other leafy green veggies that depress the absorption of certain minerals (calcium)
present in the food.
Polyphenerols: group of compounds containing at least 2 ring structures that each have at least 1 hydroxyl group attached. Can
lower bioavailability of minerals, especially iron and calcium.
Where do we obtain most of our dietary sodium? Is most of the bodys sodium located inside or outside of cells? What is meant by
interstitial fluid? What are the three main functions of sodium? What is hypertension?
75-80% in processed foods and at restaurants; Sodium chloride
Found in the extracellular fluid compartment
Interstitial Fluid: Fluid in between cells
Functions: Helps absorption of glucose and some amino acids in the small intestine, it is required for nomal muscle and nerve
function, and it aids in water balance (relates to blood pressure).
Hypertension: high blood pressurekidney disease, liver disease, and diabetes due to changes in the arteries, kidneys, and
sodium/potassium balance.
What food groups are generally good dietary sources of potassium? What are the major functions of potassium? What are the
signs of potassium deficiency?
Unprocessed foodsfruit, vegetables, milk, whole grins, dried beans, and meats.
Major cation in the cell and performs many of the same functions as sodiummaintaining fluid balace, transmitting nerve
impulses, and contracting muscle (relies on electrical charge created by shift of K and Na ions across cell membrane). Excretes
calcium but in the opposite direct, when K is high, calcium excreted in urine is declined. Keep blood pressure normal
Hypokalemia-weakness, constipation, irregular heartbeat. Raise blood pressure and risk of stroke.
Is chloride an anion or a cation and how does this relate to its major function?
It is an anion in the extracellular fluid. Its negative charge balances the positive charge from the sodium ion. They maintain
extracellular fluid volume and balance, and aid in the transmission of nerve impulses. It also is a component of HCl in the tummy
and is used during immune responses.
Where is most of the bodys calcium stored? At what period of life to we make more bone than we break down? What is
osteoporosis? What are the risk factors? What are the better sources of dietary calcium? What types of foods have the highest
biological value (absorption rates) for calcium? Generally, how is blood calcium regulated to keep it in the normal range?
Stored at acidic upper small intestine because the pH keeps the calcium dissolved in its ionic form.
Times of growth, total osteoblast activity exceeds osteoclast activity so we make more bone than we break down. Also occurs
when bone is put under high stress. Most bone is built from infancy through the late adolescent years.
o Women undergoing menopause,
Dairy, fortified foods, green leafy vegetablesBrussels sprouts, broccoli, kale, cabbage, cauliflower (60-70%)
The concentration of calcium in the bloodstream is regulated by very tight hormonal control. This means that normal blood
calcium can be maintained when calcium intake is poor because calcium can be withdrawn from the bones to keep blood and
cellular concentrations normal. When blood calcium falls, the parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone, which raises blood
calcium levels by working with vitamin d to increase kidneys reabsorption of calcium rather than excrete it in the urine. When
blood calcium levels rise too high, the hormone release falls causing calcium excretion via the urine to increase. Vitamin D also
decreases causing a drop in calcium absorption. It also secretes calcitonin, which blocks calcium loss from bones.
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
10. Where is most of the bodys phosphorus? What are phosphorus major functions in the body?
Small intestine, absorbed by active transport and diffusion. Found in bones and teeth as calcium phosphate, the remainder is found
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in every cell in the body and in the extracellular fluid. Excreted by the kidneys.
Major component of bones and teeth, main intracellular anion, similar to chloride in the extracellular. Critical to energy production
and storage. Part of DNA and RNA, phospholipids in cell membranes, and numerous enzyme and cellular message systems. Helps
regulate acid base balance in the body.
What are the major functions of magnesium in the body? Where is most of the bodys magnesium located?
Vital role in range of biochemical and physiological processes
o Stabilize ATP by binding to the phosphate groups, needed by more than 300 enzymes that utilize ATP including those
required for energy metabolism, muscle contraction, and protein synthesis. Needed f or DNA and RNA synthesis,
contributes to bone structure nerve transmission, heart and smooth muscle contraction, insulin release from pancreas, and
insulin action on cells.
Absorbed in small intestine by active and passive absorption; found in bones and rest is stored in tissues (muscles).
Chapter 13 Trace Minerals
Vocabulary: Functional proteins, transport proteins, storage proteins, anemia, superoxide dismutase enzymes, goiter
1. What is the oxygen-carrying protein of muscle cells? What iron-containing compound carries oxygen in the blood? Where is most
of the bodys iron?
Hemoglobin: found in erythoocytes composed of 4 iron-contain heme compounds that each bind 1 molecule of oxygen. Iron
carries oxygen in the blood from the lungs to all tissues of the body. IT also transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs for
expiration. Much of the bodys iron is contained in hemoglobin.
Myoglobin: protein in muscle cells contains 1 iron molecule that transports oxygen from red blood cells to skeletal and heart
muscle cells.
2. What are three things that alter iron absorption? How does vitamin C and acid in the stomach affect iron absorption? What is the
bioavailability (absorption efficiency) of heme iron and non-heme iron? What is MPF, where is it found and how does it affect iron
absorption? Under normal circumstances, what is the average percentage of dietary iron that is absorbed?
Bodys iron needs and stores, and by diet composition. When iron status is adequate, 14-18% of iron is absorbed from a typical
North American Diet. When iron need is high and stores are low, the small intestine absorbs up to 35-40% of dietary iron. When
iron need is low, the stores are saturated, less than 5% of dietary iron is absorbed.
Also affected by form of iron in foods eaten, total amount of iron present in diet, dietary composition, and acidity of gastric
contents.
o Heme or non-heme. Heme iron is absorbed much more readily than non-heme and is not affected by dietary composition
meat is efficient way to obtain iron
o Plant based non-heme iron absorption is hindered by several dietary factors. Phytic acid, oxalic acid, polyphenols.
o Vitamin C in the diet increases non-heme iron absorption because it provides an electron to ferric iron to yield ferrous
iron, which forms a soluble complex with vitamin C. It more readily crosses the mucosal layer of the small intestine and
reaches the brush border of the intestinal absorptive cells.
MPF: meat protein factor-the absorption of non-heme iron enhanced by component of meat. Eating a small amount of meat with
non heme iron contain foods can be effective of boosting non-heme iron absorption. Found in small intestine?
18% of dietary iron is absorbed each day
3. What are the functions of ferritin, transferrin and hemosiderin? What is hepcidin and ceruloplasmin and how are they related to
iron metabolism?
Ferritin: key iron binding protein produced in the enterocyte, binds and stores mucosal iron preventing it from entering the
bloodstream. How much ferritin produced depends on body iron stores. When iron stores are low, little ferritin is made which
allows greater amounts of iron to enter the mucosal iron pool for transport out of the enterocytes into the bloodstream. If iron stores
are high or saturated, larger amounts of ferritin are made to bind iron as it enters intestinal cells.
Transferrin: when iron needs are high, most of the iron absorbed into enterocytes is released into an intestinal iron pool. This iron
is then transported out of the enterocytes by a protein into the interstitial fluid for release into the bloodstream and distribution to
body cells. To transport absorbed iron to body cells, the iron is oxidized to ferric from by copper-containing enzyme and bound to a
serum protein called transferrin. Each transferrin molecule can bind 2 molecules of ferric iron for transport through the blood to
body cells.
Hemosiderin: iron binding protein in the liver that stores iron when iron levels in the body exceed the storage capacity of ferritin
Hepcidin: Protein that aids in the regulation of iron balance. The loss of this protein results in iron overload
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FSN 210 Nutrition - Study Guide for Final Exam Fall 2011
Ceruloplasmin: copper containing enzyme that oxidizes ferrous iron from to ferric form to be bounded to transferrin.
4. What is the most common nutrient deficiency? How many people worldwide does it affect? What is the difference between iron
deficiency and iron deficiency anemia? Which groups or populations are at higher risk for developing iron deficiency? What is the
major cause of iron deficiency? In the U.S., iron is added to which foods? What is hemochromatosis?
Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency. Low iron intake, high iron loss, low iron stores, and more transferrin
receptors.
As iron deficiency progresses are stores are depleted, the lack of iron for heme and hemoglobin synthesis results in the
development of iron deficiency anemia. This impairs oxygen transport in the blood causing fatigue and decreased ability to
perform normal activities. It also compromises immune function, impairs energy metabolism, and delays cognitive development.
o Anemia develops when the number of red blood cells falls below normal levels
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Teenage girls and women of childbearing age are at risk of iron deficiency because of periods and low intake of iron-rich foods.
Vegetarians and others who lack food sources of heme iron are also at risk, they also have high intakes of plant-based iron foods,
their diets contain many factors that decrease bioavailability of this iron. Those who donate blood more than 2-4 times a year.
Growing fast, low intakes of iron rich foods and high intakes of iron poor cows milk. Fortified formulas and cereals
Hemochromatosis: genetic disorder characterized by increased absorption of iron, saturation of iron-binding proteins, and iron
deposits in the liver, heart, pancreas, joints, and pituitary gland.
What are the major food sources of zinc? What are the major functions of zinc in the body? How is zinc transported in the body?
Which digestive enzymes are rich in zinc? Which compounds block absorption of zinc? Which intracellular protein, including in
intestinal cells, binds zinc? Why is there a UL for zinc? Which populations tend to be more likely to develop zinc deficiency?
Zinc: found in protein rich meat and seafood. Animal based foods (beef, lamb, and pork). Plant based (nuts, beans, whole grains)
Zinc contributes to DNA and RNA synthesis, alcohol metabolism, heme synthesis, bone formation acid-base balance, immune
function, reproduction, growth and development, and the antioxidant defense network.
Absorbed in small intestine by simple diffusion and active transport. Induces synthesis of metallothionein, a protein that binds zinc
(similar to ferritin binding iron). If zinc is not transported out of the intestinal absorptive cell into the bloodstream before the
intestinal cells are sloughed off, it passes out of the body in the feces. Thus a mucosal block decreases excess absorption of zinc.
However, large doses of zinc can override the mucosal block.
Zinc absorption increases when zinc intake is low or marginal, when animal protein intake is high and when body needs for zinc
are elevated. zinc absorption decrease when zinc or non-heme iron intake is excessive, dietary fiber and phytic acid intake is high,
and zinc status is inadequate.
Zinc is bounded by metallothionein and albumin.
The UL is 40 .g/day
Young children, individuals with Crohns disease, vegetarians.
How do zinc and copper act together in the superoxide dismutase enzyme family?
These enzymes eliminate superoxide free radicals, which prevents oxidative damage to cell membranes.
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