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Course: MCB MCB2010, Fall 2010School: Broward College
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HEAT
Cannedfoodsareanexampleofcontrolofmicrobialgrowthbyheating.Inthemedicalworld,
labmedia,glassware,andsurgicalinstrumentsareexamplesofthingsusuallysterilizedbyheat.
Heatresistancevariesamongmicrobes.
Thermaldeathpointisthelowesttemperatureatwhichallmicrobesinaliquidculturewillbe
killedin10minutes.
Thermaldeathtimeistheminimumlengthoftimeinwhichallbacteriainaliquidculturewill
bekilledatagiventemperature.
Decimalreductiontime(Dvalue)isthetimeinminutesinwhich90%ofbacteriawillbekilled
atagiventemperature.
MOISTHEATallmoistheatmethodskillmicrobesbycoagulatingordenaturingtheir
proteins,includingenzymes.Thisoccursfasterinthepresenceofwater,somoistheatrequires
lowertemperaturesandlesstimeofexposurethandryheat.
BOILING(100oC)killsallvegetativebacterialpathogens,almostallviruses,andfungiand
theirsporesin10minutesorless(oftenmuchless).Endosporesandafewvirusesaremuchmore
resistanttoboiling.
HepatitisAvirus30minutes
Endosporesupto20hours
Althoughboilingwillkillmostpathogens,itisnotadependablemeansofsterilization.
AUTOCLAVEthisdeviceusessteamunderpressureforeffectivesterilization.Itemstobe
sterilizedareplacedinachamber,whichisthensealed.Allairisexhaustedandsteamunder
pressureisinjected.Thisachieveshighertemperaturesthanboiling.Itisthepreferredmeansof
sterilizationforallmaterialsthatcanwithstandit.
Themostcommonsettingusessteamunder15lbspressureandreachesatemperatureof121oC.
Thiskillsallorganismsandtheirendosporesinabout1520minutes.
Hereweuseanautoclavetosterilizeculturemedia.Inhospitals,doctorsoffices,dentists
offices,etc.thismethodsisusedtosterilizeinstruments.
Materialsbeingautoclavedareoftenwrappedinpaper,sothataftersterilizationtheoutsideof
thepackagecanbehandledwithoutcontaminatingthesterileiteminside.
Thesizeofthecontainer,thevolumeofaliquid,andthetypeofwrappingcaninfluencethetime
andtemperaturerequiredforsterilization.
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Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HELMINTHSThesearetheparasiticworms.Theybelongtotwophyla,Platyhelminthes(flatworms)andNematoda(roundworms).Bothphylacontainmanyfreelivingspecies,butonlytheparasiticspecieswillbediscussed.Helminthsaremulticellulareukaryoticanimals.Theygenerallyhavediges
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HISTORY OF CHEMOTHERAPY1.Althoughchemotherapywithnaturalproductssuchasherbscanbetracedbackfarinthehistoryofman,PaulEhrlichisgivencreditforthebirthofmodernchemotherapy.Hesetouttocreateatreatmentforsyphilisthatwouldcurethediseasemorereliablyandwithlessha
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HOSTRANGEMostvirusesarefairlyspecificastowhatspeciestheyarecapableofinfecting.Mostarelimitedtoonlyonespeciesorseveralcloselyrelatedspecies.Thereareevenvirusesthatattackonlybacteria.Theseareknownasbacteriophages,orjustphages.Themainfactorsindetermining
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HOW BACTERIAL PATHOGENSDAMAGE HOST CELLSManymicrobesenteringahostaredestroyedbylysosomes.Ifthemicrobesmanagetoavoidthis,theymaycausedamageinfourmainways:1.Usinghost'snuitrients2.Causingdirectdamageintheimmediateareaoftheinvasion3.Byproducingtoxinsth
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HOW BACTERIAL PATHOGENSPENETRATE HOST DEFENSESMostpathogensmustpenetratetissuestocausedisease.Factorsthatcontributetotheabilityofbacteriatoinvadeahost:1.Capsulessomebacteriaformanorganizedglycocalyxcalledacapsulearoundtheircellwalls,whichincreasesthe
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HOW DO WE GET THE GENE?ManybacteriamakeenzymesthathavetheabilitytocutastrandofDNAintopieces.Theseenzymesarecalledrestrictionenzymes.AparticularrestrictionenzymealwayscutsintotheDNAataparticularsequenceofbases.Inthebacteria,theseenzymesapparentlyareprod
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HYDROSTATICPRESSUREThisreferstothepressureexertedbywaterinrelationtoitsdepth.Barophilesareorganismsadjustedtoaveryhighhydrostaticpressure,livingatdepthsofupto1milesintheocean.Theseorganisms(bothprocaryocytesandeucaryocytesexist)cannotliveatlowerpressur
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HYPERSENSITIVITY(ALLERGY)Allergiesareareactiontoanantigenwhichiscalledanallergen.Allergensthemselvesarenotharmfulanddonotprovokeareactionineveryone.Someindividualsbecomesensitizedtoaparticularallergen,whichtheimmunesystemsofmostofthepopulationignore.Th
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
HYPERSENSITIVITY(ALLERGY)2.TypeII(cytotoxicreactions)thesearemediatedbyIgGorIgMantibodiesandcomplement.Thistypeofreactionisdirectedtowardcells,whicharelysedordamagedinotherways.a.Bloodgroupswrongtypebloodcellsgiveninatransfusionareanexampleofthistypeo
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
IDENTIFYING MUTANTSMutantscanbedetectedbyselectingortestingforalteredphenotype.Evenwhenamutagenisinvolved,thenumberofmutantsrepresentsonlyaverysmallpercentageofthepopulation.1.Positive(direct)selectioncellsareplacedinsurroundingswhereonlymutantscangrow
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
IMMUNOLOGICALMEMORYThelevelofantibodiesintheserumagainstaparticularantigencanbemeasuredthisiscalledantibodytiter.Ifapersonhasneverencounteredanantigen,therearenoantibodies,andforseveraldaysafterthefirstencounterthisisstillthecase.Thenantibodiesbegintoa
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
IMMUNOLOGYLongbeforeanyunderstandingoftheimmunesystemandvaccineshadcomealong,itwasrecognizedthatpeoplewhohadsurvivedacaseofaninfectiousdiseasewereoftenimmunetothatdiseasefortherestoftheirlives.Thefirstrecordwehaveofanytypeofdeliberateexposuretoadiseas
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
INCLUSIONSthesearereservedepositsofchemicalswithinthecytoplasm.Theytendtoaccumulatewhennutrientsareplentiful.a.Metachromaticgranules(volutingranules)phosphatereservethatcanbeusedinsynthesizingATP.Theselargegranulesstainredwithmethyleneblue.Theyarechar
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
INFLAMMATIONDamagetotissuetriggersaresponsecallinflammationortheinflammatoryresponse.Damagecanbeofanytype,andmayormaynotincludeinvasionbymicrobes.Signsandsymptomsofinflammationinclude:HeatPainRednessSwellingLossoffunction(ifthedamageissevereenough
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
INTERFERONSControlofvirusesinthebodyisespeciallydifficultsincevirusesdependmainlyonnormalbodyprocessesfortheirreproduction.Anythingthatdamagesthevirusalsotendstodamagenormalhostcellsinthesameway.Onewaythebodytriestodefenditselfisbytheproductionofinter
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
Klebsiellaliveinsoilandwateraswellasintestinaltracts.Manycanfixnitrogen.K.pneumoniaecancauseseverepneumonia,usuallyinpatientsinapoornutritionalstate.Serratiaonespecies,S.marcescens,producesareddishorangepigment.Itisacommoncontaminantinhospitals,frequen
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
LEGIONELLALESanotherorder.1)Legionellathisentiregenuswasdiscoveredfairlyrecently.Theyhaveprobablybeenaroundlongerthanhumans,butwehadneverfoundthem.In1976therewasanoutbreakofanunusualpneumoniainpersonswhohadattendedanationalconventionoftheAmericanLegion
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
LIGHTMICROSCOPYModernmicroscopesarecompoundlightmicroscopes.Thismeansthatthereare2lensesthatmagnify,theocularlensandtheobjectivelens.Lightraysprovidetheillumination.Brightfieldmicroscopythisisthemostcommonuseofthelightmicroscope.Specimensareusuallyst
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
LIPIDBIOSYNTHESISCellssynthesizefatsbylinkingglycerolandfattyacids.Theglycerolcanbeproducedfromoneoftheintermediatesinglycolysis.FattyacidsarebuiltupbylinkingfragmentsofacetylCoA.Thisisalsoaprocessofdehydrationsynthesis.Lipidsaremostimportantascompone
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
LOWTEMPERATURESThesearemuchmoreoftenbacteriostaticthatbacteriocidal.Althoughsomespeciesarefairlyeasilydamaged,lowtemperaturesareneveradependablemeansofkillingmicrobes.1.NORMALREFRIGERATORTEMPERATURESveryfewpathogenscangrow.Psychrotrophsgrowslowly,andw
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MATURATIONANDRELEASETheassemblyofthecapsidusuallyoccursspontaneouslywhenallcomponentshavebeensynthesized.Ifthevirusisanenvelopedvirus,theviralproteinstobeincludedintheenvelopearesynthesizedinthehostcellalongwiththerestoftheviralproteins.Theseproteinsar
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MECHANICALFACTORS1.SKINprovidesaneffectivebarrieragainsttheentryofmicrobes.Itconsistsoftwolayers,theouterepidermis(epithelialtissue)andtheinnerdermis(connectivetissue).Theepidermisismadeupoflayersofepithelialcellsincontinuoussheets,tightlyconnectedtoea
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MECHANISMOFENZYMEACTION1.Surfaceoftheenzymemoleculecontainsaregioncalledtheactivesite.Thisisthepartthat"fits"thesubstrate.2.Atemporaryenzymesubstratecomplexformsasthesubstratefitsintotheactivesite.3.Thesubstrateischanged.Thiswillinvolvemakingorbreakin
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MECHANISMOFPHAGOCYTOSISTherearefourmainphasesintheprocess:1.Chemotaxischemicalattractionofphagocytestomicrobes.Thechemicalsinvolvedinclude:MicrobialproductssuchastoxinsChemicalsreleasedbywhitebloodcellsalreadyintheareaChemicalsreleasedbydamagedtissue
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MECHANISMOFPHAGOCYTOSISLysosomalenzymesincludelysozyme,whichbreaksdownthepeptidoglycanofthebacterialcellwall.Otherenzymes,includinglipases,proteases,ribonuclease,anddeoxyribonucleasebreakdownotherbacterialcomponents.Theseenzymesaredesignedtoworkbestata
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MEDICALLYIMPORTANTDIVISIONSOFFUNGIDIVISIONGROWTHCHARACTERISTICSASEXUALSPORESHUMANPATHOGENSZYGOMYCOTANONSEPTATEHYPHAESPORANGIOSPORESRhizopusMucorDIMORPHICCONIDIOSPORESAspergillusBlastomycesdermatidisHistoplasmacapsulatumSEPTATEHYPHAE,STRON
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MEDICALLYIMPORTANTPHYLAOFPROTOZOAThelifecycleis:1)AmosquitocarryingtheinfectivestateofPlasmodium(calledasporozoite)bitesahumanandinjectssporozoitesintothebloodstream.Theyarecarriedtotheliver.2)Inthelivertheyundergoschizogonyandproducethousandsofaformk
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MEDICALLYIMPORTANTPHYLAOFPROTOZOAWewillstudyonlythosegroupsthatcontainpathogens.1.Archaezoaeukaryocytesthatlackmitochondria.Manyoftheseliveinsymbiosisinthedigestivetractsofanimals.Mosthavetwoormoreflagellaformovement.Somehaveamembraneattachedtotheflag
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MEDICALLYIMPORTANTPHYLAOFPROTOZOA9)Theoocystrupturesandthesporozoitesmigratetothesalivaryglandsofthemosquito,wheretheyarereadytoinfectanewhostbittenbythemosquito.Inthiscyclethemosquitoiscalledthedefinitivehostbecauseitharborsthestageundergoingsexualre
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
METABOLICDIVERSITYAnorganismsmetabolicpathwaysdependontheenzymesavailable.Allorganismscanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirnutritionalpattern:1.Sourceofenergy2.Sourceofcarbon1.ENERGYSOURCEa.Phototrophscanuselightenergyb.Chemotrophsmustobtainenergyfromoxi
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
METABOLICREACTIONSMetabolismsumofallthechemicalreactionswithinalivingorganism.2maintypesofreactionsareinvolved:1.Catabolism(catabolicordegradationreactions)thesebreakdownlargermoleculestosmallerones,breakingchemicalbondsandreleasingenergyintheprocess(
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
METHODSOFCLASSIFYINGANDIDENTIFYINGMICROORGANISMSFATTYACIDPROFILESoftenthetypeandamountofvariousfattyacidsarecharacteristicofcertainspeciesofbacteria.Cellularfattyacidscanbeseparatedandcomparedtoknownprofiles.FLOWCYTOMETRYfluidcontainingbacteriaisforc
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
METHODSOFCLASSIFYINGANDIDENTIFYINGMICROORGANISMSSEROLOGYhisisthesciencethatstudiesbloodserumandimmuneresponsesthatcanbemeasuredinserum.Whenmicroorganismsenterthebody,oneoftheresponsesistheformationofproteinscalledantibodies.Antibodiescirculateintheblo
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
METHODSOFCLASSIFYINGANDIDENTIFYINGMICROORGANISMSMicroorganismsareidentifiedandclassifiedformorethanonereason.Weattempttoidentifyandclassifyalllivingthings,butdeterminingtheidentityofpathogensisespeciallyimportant,becauseitoftenmakeseffectivetreatmentp
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
METHODSOFCLASSIFYINGANDIDENTIFYINGMICROORGANISMSRIBOSOMALRNASEQUENCINGthisisanothertechniqueusedtodeterminetherelationshipsamongorganisms.RibosomalRNAisbelievedtochangelessthanothernucleicacidsovertime,becauseifanorganismhasadrasticchangeinitsrRNAitwo
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MICROBIALGENETICSGeneticsisthescienceofheredity.Itincludes:WhataregenesHowdotheycarryinformationHowaretheyreplicated(copied)HowaretheypassedtosubsequentgenerationsofcellsHowaretheypassedfromorganismtoorganismHowdoestheirexpressiondeterminethecharac
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MICROBIALGENETICSWhileageneisbeingusedasapattern,thetwostrandsofDNAmustbeseparated.Thehydrogenbondsthatlinkthestrandsareweakandeasilybroken.ThetwostrandsofDNAmustalsoseparatewhentheDNAisreplicatedpriortocelldivision.DNAcanchange(mutate).Thisisoftendam
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
DIRECTMEASUREMENTOFMICROBIALGROWTHa.POURPLATESTomakeapourplate,generallyeither1mlor0.1mlofthedilutionisplacedinasterileemptyPetridish.Nutrientagarwhichhasbeenheldinliquidformatabout45oCisaddedtothePetridishandcarefullymixed.Theagarquicklysolidifiesandb
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MITOCHONDRIAthesearethepowerhouses,wheremostofthecellsATPisproduced.Amitochondrionhas2membranes,asmoothoutermembraneandaninnermembranethatliesindeepfoldscalledcristae.Theinnercavityisthematrix.Theprocessofcellularrespirationiscarriedoutbyenzymesassocia
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
Modern Developments in Microbiologyvarious branches of microbiology have developed:o bacteriology study of bacteriao mycology study of fungio parasitology study of protozoa and parasitic wormso immunology study of how immunity reacts to various patho
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MONOCLONALANTIBODIESInadditiontobodydefense,antibodiesarealsoveryhelpfulindiagnosisofdisease.Forsometime,theprocedureforobtainingtheminvolvedinjectionoftheantigenintoananimal,whichstimulatedtheanimaltoproduceantibodieswhichcouldberecoveredfromtheserum.
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MULTIPLICATIONOFANIMALVIRUSESThisprocessfollowsthesamebasicpatternasbacteriophagemultiplication,butthereareseveraldifferences.Hereisabriefcomparison:STAGEBACTERIOPHAGEANIMALVIRUSESATTACHMENTTAILFIBERSATTACHTOCELL ATTACHMENTSITESAREWALLPLASMAMEMBR
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MULTIPLICATIONOFBACTERIOPHAGESThebasicmechanismforviralmultiplicationissimilarforallviruses.Wehavethebestunderstandingoflifecyclesofthebacteriophages.Onceaphagehasenteredacell,therearetwopossibilitiesforthenextsteps.Theseareknownasthelyticcycleandthels
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MULTIPLICATIONOFBACTERIOPHAGESAfterthis,biosynthesisofotherviralproteinsbegins.mRNAistranscribedfromphageDNAsothatanyadditionalphageenzymesandcapsidproteinscanbesynthesized.Thesearecalledlateproteins.Thereisaperiodduringwhichnocompletephageparticlesar
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
MUTATION: CHANGE IN THE GENETICMATERIALAmutationisachangeinthebasesequenceofDNA.Thiswillsometimescauseachangeintheproductencodedbythatgene.Ifthegeneisanenzyme,theenzymemaybecomemoreorlessactivebecauseofachangeintheaminoacidsequence.Ifthemutationmakest
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
NEMATODES(THEROUNDWORMS)Thesewormsareroundincrosssectionandtaperedateachend.Theyhaveacompletedigestivesystem,withamouth,anintestine,andananus.Mostaredioecious.Malesaresmallerthanfemales.Manynematodesarefreelivinginsoilandwater,buttherearealsomanyparasi
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
NONPROTEOBACTERIAGRAMNEGATIVEBACTERIAtheseareonlydistantrelativesofthegramnegativeproteobacteria.1.Cyanobacteriathesehaveabluegreencolorandresemblealgae.Theycarryoutoxygenicphotosynthesisandmanyofthemfixnitrogen.Specialcellscalledheterocystscontainenzy
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
NonspecificDefensesofHostSincemicrobesarefoundinsuchlargenumbersinourenvironmentandareequippedwithvariousmeansofinvadingandcausingdisease,wemustbeabletodefendourselvesagainstthem.Ourabilitytofightdiseaseiscalledresistance,andoccursinthreemainways:1.Pr
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
NORMALMICROBIOTA(NORMALFLORA)REGIONNORMALFLORAORGANISMSCOMMENTSSKINPropionibacteriunmacnesSecretionsfromsweatandoilglandshaveantimicrobialproperties,somicrobesindirectcontactmaynotliveforlongperiods,butlargenumbersalwayspresent.Staphylococcusepi
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
NUCLEARAREA(NUCLEIOD)prokaryoticcellsdonothaveaseparate,membraneenclosedareafortheDNA.TheirDNA,intheformofonecircularchromosomewithoutassociatedhistones,isnotseparatedfromthecytoplasm.ThechromosomesDNAtwistsintoatighthelixandisconnectedtotheplasmamembr
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
NUTRITIONALADAPTATIONSFungimayadaptwelltoenvironmentsthatdonotsupportgrowthofbacteria.Tocomparethetwogroups:1.FungiusuallypreferapHofabout5,whichistooacidformostbacteria2.Almostallmoldsareaerobic.Mostyeastsarefacultativeanaerobes.3.Mostfungiaremorere
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OBSERVINGMICROORGANISMSTHROUGHAMICROSCOPEMagnificationisnecessarytoobserveandstudymicrobes.Also,weknowallmicrobesaresmall,butwemuststillbeabletomeasuretheirsize.Unitsofthemetricsystemareused.Themeteristhestandardunit,butsincethisisroughlyequivalenttoo
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OBTAININGPURECULTURESMostsamplesfromnaturalconditionscontainmanydifferentspeciesofbacteria,andoftenothertypesofmicrobesaswell.Eachmicrobeplacedonthesurfaceofasolidmediumgrowsandformsavisiblecolony.Coloniesformedbydifferentmicrobesmayhavedifferentappear
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OPERON MODEL OF GENEEXPRESSIONThisisadescriptionofthedetailsofthecontrolofgeneexpressionbyinductionandrepression.InductionoftheenzymesinvolvedinlactosecatabolisminEscherichiacolicanbeusedastheexample.Threeenzymesareneededfortakinginandbreakingdownlac
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OPERON MODEL OF GENEEXPRESSIONWhenlactoseispresent,asmallamountofitentersthecellandisconvertedtoallolactose.Allolactoseactsasaninducer.Itbindstotherepressorproteinandaltersitsothatitcannotbindtotheoperatorsite.RNApolymerasecannowtranscribethestructura
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OPPORTUNISTIC MICROORGANISMSUndercertaincircumstances,relationshipsbetweenorganismscanchange.Forexample,commonstrainsofEscherichiacoliareharmlessorbeneficialinthelargeintestine.However,E. coliisaverycommoncauseofurinarytractinfectionsifitgainsaccesstot
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
ORGANICGROWTHFACTORSTheseareessentialorganiccompoundsanorganismcannotsynthesize.Vitaminsareoneexample.Thesefunctionascoenzymesandarerequiredforessentialmetabolicreactions.Manybacteriacansynthesizealltheirownvitamins(humanscanmakeonlyafew),butsomedoreq
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OSMOTICPRESSUREPlacingahighconcentrationofsaltorsugarinbacterialsurroundingscauseswatertoleavethecell.Thisisverysimilartoplaindesiccation.Itcausestheplasmamembranetoshrinkawayfromthecellwallplasmolysis.Thecellstopsgrowingandeventuallydies.Thisisawayof
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OTHER ANTIMICROBIALSMODEOFACTIONCOMMENTSANTIFUNGALDRUGSPOLYENESAmphotericinBInjurytoplasmamembraneSystemicfungalinfections.Fungicidal.IMIDAZOLES&TRIAZOLESInhibitionofplasmamembranesynthesis.Fungicidal.ClotrimazoleTopicaluseforfungalinfectionso
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
OXYGENREQUREMENTSOFMICROBES1.Obligateaerobes(aerobicmicrobes)theserequireoxygentoliveandgrow(thisdescriptionalsofitsus!).Theymustproduceenzymesthatcounteractthetoxiceffectsofoxygen.Theadvantageofusingoxygenisthataerobiccellularmetabolismisthemosteffici
Broward College - MCB - MCB2010
PATHOGENICPROPERTIESOFFUNGI,PROTOZOA,HELMINTHS,ANDALGAE1.Fungisomefungicancausedisease,butasagrouptheydonothaveawelldefinedsetofvirulencefactors.a.Somefungidoproducetoxicchemicals.Trichothecenesaretoxinsthatinhibitproteinsynthesisineukaryoticcells.b