strongly B.
He disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment
of sin could be purchased with money.
taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only
as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as
redeemer from sin
challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church
by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed
knowledge
also said since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who
claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and
granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not
slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon
chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.
intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible
to everyday Germans
in 1515 : Popes much wealthier and more powerful than most secular rulers
D.
. Agricultural Revolution and enclosure
a. enclosure: rationalizes ag system
b. labor displacement: consequence of enclosure; no longer make
their village work or pasture animals or hunt because property is not lords
personal property
c. surplus labor
d. increased population over all
e. decline of rural aristocratic society beginsthrough this is slow,
especially in southern eastern Europe
2. Commercial Revolution
a. mercantile trade in textiles
b. navigation acts, and colonial production of raw materials
c. rising demand for cheap fabrics, esp cotton, 1770-1850
d. rising demand for luxury goods, sugar, coffee, tea, cocoa, etc
Creation of new colonial outposts (pushed by mercantile ideas)
Increased trade in exotic goods (cocoa, coffee, tobacco, tea,
sugar)
New financial instruments (banks, stock markets)
Development of capitalism
o Use and accumulation of excess money in order to
create new foundations of wealth
Industrious revolution
o New small-scale industries
3. Military Revolution
a. demand for interchangeable weaponry increases
b. overall demand for military supplies increases during
Napoleonic Wars
c. Need for grade-scale production of arms, uniforms, shells, etc
-new troop discipline (begun by Gustavus Adolphus, continued under Louis XIV
by drill masters like Jean Martinet
-new weapons: flintlocks bayonets
-uniforms
-movement toward standardization of artillery and toward professional
training of engineers
- Movement toward professionalization of the army
- New fortifications designs
-more emphasis on troops mobility
-movement toward creation of standing armies
-beginnings of idea of forming citizen armies, local militia instead of
hiring of mercenaries (but mercenaries used LONG afterward)
-larger armies (1678 France as 120,000 men at arms)
-advent absolutism especially in france
These effects were uneven in Europe, no universal affects
G. Resistance to Napoleon
a. English intransigence, war declared again 1803
b. The Continental System: trading; no one should trade with British; by
blocking British trade he bottles up trade in Baltic Sea and Russians
become more and more unhappy over time; blocks manufactures coming
in to Europe from outside including sugar from America and Caribbean;
new textile systems since British is cut off; goods become more expensive
and people complain;
c. Spain 1808
c.i. Napoleon hoped he could rule by Proxy; in 1808 he would
replaced the monarchy with his brother and decides that he is
going to propose French style reform to Spain; closed Spanish
monasteries ;
d. Growing resistance in Central Europe
d.i. Increasing numbers of Grigons and gorilla warriors; French cannot
impose their will on Spanish; Spanish is always a problem;
e. Origins of Nationalism
e.i. Too much empire or Hubris creates the opposite (Nationalist
reaction)
H.
The Industrial Revolution
Origins and Causes
A. Culmination of early modern revolutions
1. Agricultural Revolution and enclosure
a. enclosure: rationalizes ag system
b. labor displacement: consequence of enclosure; no longer make
their village work or pasture animals or hunt because property is not lords
personal property
c. surplus labor
d. increased population over all
e. decline of rural aristocratic society beginsthrough this is slow,
especially in southern eastern Europe
2. Commercial Revolution
a. mercantile trade in textiles
b. navigation acts, and colonial of production raw materials
c. rising demand for cheap fabrics, esp cotton, 1770-1850
d. rising demand for luxury goods, sugar, coffee, tea, cocoa, etc
3. Military Revolution
a. demand for interchangeable weaponry increases
b. overall demand for military supplies increases during
Napoleonic Wars
c. Need for grade-scale production of arms, uniforms, shells, etc
4. Scientific Revolution?
a. Specialized sciences contribute little in early industrial
revolution
b. most machines and innovations come from tinkerers amateur
and on-the-job craftsmen
5. Social and Cultural Origins
a. protestant work ethic? (Theory of Max Weber): Accumulated all
wealth on Earth was sign that one in fact was saved; desire to
accumulate savings and not spend money on luxury or show;
b. British gentrys relative openness of commerce, capitalism,
invention; people in Britain wanted to invest and invent new things
c. Adam Smiths (Scottish) nation of shopkeepers: Scotland was
also active in commerce and trade; lowlands Scots were active in
Commerce-they pushed for industrialismthey were also
Calvinist;
^^These effects were uneven in Europe, no universal affects
F.
Absolutism shares with enlightenment: rationalizing, universalizing, semimeritocratic worldview: emphasis on efficiency and utility; toleration or attempt
to limit the churchs powers
Enlightenment v. Absolutism
-absolutist do not want to destroy the system of privileges, or be restrained by
laws
-here, reform must come from above
-Locke: sovereignty of the people and right to rebel against tyranny
-Voltaire: Ecrasez Iinfame! destroy the infamous thing wants organized
religion to be wiped out; anti-clericalabsolute monarchs dont agree
-Rousseau: the social contract can be remade, when contract was violated by
ruler, the people had the right to rewrite the contractabsolute monarchs dont
agree
-absolutists are not willing to go as far as enlightenment wants
Absolute want the reform to come from them; not wanting reform to come from
belowthey want to keep control
-wont allow free market or free discussion
E.
A.
Absolutism
Centralization of power, arms, justice and the distribution of revenues
under the power of the monarch
Developed to strengthen the monarch power
Made monarch less dependent on the nobility
Emphasized the monarchs divine right to rule
Militarization
Fiscal and economic systems towards war, defense and their executive armed
forces, the growing fusion of army and society
Use of military as an instrument of domestic modernization
Mercantilism
Invented by Colbert
Systematic policy of economics
1st real national economic policy
Absolutists
Tried to make their state more efficient
Thought church should be subordinate to the king
Emphasized on efficiency and utility; or attempt to limit the churchs power
C.
King and nobles conflicts
King wants to rationalize the economy
King wants to consolidate his power
a. Needs help of the 3rd estates to do both
Noble opposition to financial reforms
Noble opposition to absolutism (bc it eats away at their priviledges)
Nobles desire to maintain distinctions btwn the orders and to maintain old
seigniorial privileges
Bread prices and winter of 1788/89
20 sue a loaf
ppl were hungry and angry
enormous stress
Sieyes whats the 3rd estate?
important pamphlet by the abbe de sieys, published jan 1789
insist that the estate general must have a proper means of voting so that the 3rd
estate makes the decisions
o in so doing suggest that the 3rd estate is the nation
describes nobility and clergy as parasites
also suggests need to do away with the system of order entirely (taxing everyone
wont solve the problem; sieyes shows that as long as the 2 other estates have legal
privileges the people will be enslaved by them)
king refuses to decide
Debt
from Louis XVI
o losing 7yrs war
o backing americans in war of indp
Louis XV
o Built Versailles
o Couldnt overcome fiscal problems bc he couldnt harmonize the
conflicting parties
o Financial strain of servicing old debt and the excesses of the
current royal court caused dissatisfaction with the monarchy,
contributed to national unrest and culminated in French revolution
Taxation
Exempted the nobles and clergy from taxes
Tax burdens devolved to the peasants, wage earners and the professional
and business classes (aka 3rd estate)