#2 Exam Study Guide
There are essentially three thematic categories of the 2nd half of this course: 1. Conceptual overview of the U.S. Social Welfare System
a. Framework for categorizing policies & programs of the "residual" U.S. Welfare State b. The overarching distinction and concern with the "deserving" vs. "undeserving" poor.
2. Review of America's Social Insurance and Public Assistance Programs 3. Policy Case Study: How the AFDC program was transformed into the TANF program.
First a few general tips...
1. If you were to review some readings for the exam, I'd focus on the following
a. Skim both the Pollack primer on "Social Welfare Programs in America" and the Dolgoff and Feldstein (2003) "Examining a Social Welfare Program" from week 9. b. Handler, Joel. 1972. "Theory and Development" (Ch. 2) in Reforming the Poor, New York: Basic Books. c. Rodgers, Harrell R. 2006. Ch. 5 "The Evolution of Welfare: Ending Welfare as we know it" in American Poverty in a New Era of Reform" d. Martha Coven, 2005. "An Introduction to TANF," Center for Budget and Policy Priorities. Washington DC: (an updated version of the original summary by Liz Schott is available at
http://www.cbpp.org/1-22-02tanf2.htm ).
2. You'll notice a lot of numbers and factoids throughout this study guide; it's less important to
worry about memorizing them as it is to understand what they are telling you about the main themes of the second half of class.
Section I: Conceptualizing the U.S. Social Welfare System
A. First of all, we should keep in mind a set of distinctions carried over from the first part of class. After Exam #1, we started the second half of class by reviewing how there are three general political orientations that inform social welfare policy making (conservative, liberal & Social Democratic). Here, we've reproduced that table but also EXPANDED it, to show how these three philosophical and political orientations also inform how people and policy makers think about particular elements of the American Welfare State, especially its "public assistance" programs (AFDC & TANF). General Political Orientations Conservative Individualistic Residual Low Culture of Poverty Poverty & Inequality
Poverty caused by bad individual choices; poor cultural values; welfare system's perverse incentives
Views of... Social Justice The Welfare State Faith in Government
Liberal Redistributive A mix of Residual & Institutional Moderate
(faith in limited gov't)
Social Democratic Solidaristic / Communal Institutional High Structural
Poverty is driven by structural Conditions in Labor Market
Human Capital &
Discrimination Poverty caused lack of skills & education.
The general size and scope of ALL social welfare programs
Should be reduced so Should be basically maintained Should be expanded so that that we move closer to in the form (leans residual w we move closer to the the ideal of the some institutional elements) that "institutional" ideal. "residual" welfare state. it traditionally has been. AFDC is beside the point. Scrap it Adjust it. What needs change has little to Replace w a much more ..so as to introduce a slightly more do w welfare policy; it's about work oriented program that also limited, work oriented, reforming the Low Wage Labor Statecentered program. develops recipients' human capital. Market. Time limits, work requirements, family caps, lower benefits
Maintain benefits, more hum capital development (HCD) services & transitional assistance Expand benefits; but also do some HCD, work supports & public jobs. Better would be Health Care Ref & Child Care
The Old AFDC welfare system
What should "welfare reform" do
B. The ERAs of U.S. Welfare State Development i. The first federal cash programs (Pension)
ii.
1930's through 1940's: The era of the Social Security Act's enactment (and World War II). The notion of a large and powerful FEDERAL government is established and legitimated. Social security, ADC to TANF, Unemployment Insurance. 1960's: The Great Society and the War on Poverty. Liberals (& Soc. Dems) partially succeed in completing their project of establishing a fully formed Social Welfare State based on the European (& mostly Social Democratic) "institutional" welfare state model, which emphasized universal health care coverage in addition to retirement benefits. (Medicare, Medicaid established, EOA) 1970's: The era of covert welfare state expansion. Gov't social welfare spending continued to increase despite the fact that little expansion of programs was established through official legislative means; rather it was done through bureaucratic "technical" changes in eligibility rules & how rules were interpreted (and also advocacy and awareness raising among social workers). SSBG, CoLA to SS 1980's 1990s: The era of Retrenchment. Federal gov't social welfare spending is systematically scaled back through the vigorous efforts of Republican (and sometimes Democratic) members of congress to enact legislation intended to scale back program eligibility and benefit levels. Welfare Reform is the most prominent example of these efforts, but also similar dynamic was seen in SSI, food stamps, student educational loans & various social services funding streams. Turned to TANF in 1996. Social demographic changes for example the rapid increase in single mothers and social welfare spending. Concern led it to welfare reform in 1996 starting TANF.
iii.
iv.
v.
C. Another big conceptual table: Welfare State Programs by Structural and Demographic characteristics that influence the "strength" of those programs. See Appendix III.
Questions to consider
1) What's the difference between Entitlement and Non Entitlement programs?
a. Functional vs. Structural
2) What's the difference between Cash and In Kind benefit types? 3) What's the difference between a program that is "universal" and one that is "categorical means-tested"? i. There are certain rules based on income to be able receive categorical means-tested programs. b. Which is more costly to run? c. Which would you rather depend on? d. What's the big Tradeoff btw universalism and means testing?
4) Here's a boring bureaucratic distinction that only a geek like Eric gets excited about: Some programs are administered FEDERALLY, while others are administered by the STATES or by LOCALITIES. i. Federal: Social Security and Medicare ii. Federal and state: Medicaid
b. Do these distinctions matter? If so, why? c. What's the historic reason that Liberals and Social Democrats have been skeptical about devolving administrative authority for welfare programs to the STATES? (think: what was much of the civil rights movement about?)
5) A similar boring distinction is the way programs get funded: All Fed, All State, or more typically a FedState matching formula.
a. Why do the Feds often delegate admin to the states, but then have fed-state mixed funding? i. Different states have different demographic populations and different kind of needs. Differences in social democratic competition. Conservatives want more state and local programs and liberals/social democratic want universal programs. b. How did progressives use funding formulas to influence state policy historically? Hint: Think historically about why progressives in the Federal government wanted to have influence in the southern states (thinking the same way as 4B above). 6) What are some differences between Social Insurance and Public Assistance?
Social Insurance Philosophical & Political Meaning Source of Funding Eligibility Function An Earned Right Earmarked Payroll TAXES. Contributory Leans Universal, but some categorical Poverty Prevention Public Assistance Charity, the Dole General Revenue & annual appropriations Categorical & usually Means Tested Poverty Alleviation
Section II:
America's Social Insurance and Public Assistance programs
Facts and Figures
Note: Between the readings, lecture and discussion sections, there is a veritable cornucopia of data and factoids floating around for you, dear students, to potentially review. So, being compassionate and tenderhearted social workers, we've honed down this feast-sized mound of information to a manageable meal-sized plateful of key data-points and program facts. Rest assured that any data that you need to know and/or be generally familiar with will come from this study guide.
1. OASDI (Source: Social Security Administration 2009 fact sheet) a) Average Monthly Benefit: ...for retirees: $1159/mo; ...for disabled workers: $1062/mo; ...for survivors: $1118.
b) Average Benefit replaces 56 percent of an average worker's monthly earnings.
c) Total number of recipients: about 51 Million (top three categories: retirees (36 Million); Disabled (~10 Million) and Survivors (~6.4 Million). There is some overlap in beneficiary categories(that's why total is
less than 52.4M)
d) The poverty rate among seniors has dropped from 36% in 1959 to 10.2% in 2004.
e) By 2034, there will be almost twice as many older Americans as today from about 40 million today to 74.6 million. f)
There are currently about 3.2 workers for each Social Security beneficiary. By 2034, there will be 2.1 workers for each beneficiary.
g) Be familiar with the following table and chart from the Gonyea and Hooyman article (wk 9); what is table 3 telling us? What is figure 1 telling us? a. Women live longer, benefits not as high, and do not work as much
2. Supplemental Security Income (data from the 2008 Green Book) a. Maximum benefits are inflation-adjusted with the Consumer Price Index. In 2005: $579 for individuals; $869 for couples. b. Average benefit is $320 for elderly, $445 for blind, $425 for other disabilities. Less than $600. c. Eligibility or "Disability Determination": i. Means Test: Not eligible if you earn $810 a month (above) ii. Employability: Does disability interfere with employment? iii. Disability must be Medically Determinable: Is disability included on "list of impairments" that SSI workers use as `first cut' in eligibility assessments. iv. Waiting list: Process can take up to 9 months 3. Major social welfare programs in America (w/ budget estimates from 2010 Congressional Budget Office documents1 Note all estimates are in the millions meaning you add 6 zeros to each of the numbers below .... For example: Medicaid's budget line says "$250,000." This = $250 Billion ).
F.
A. Medicare ($425,095) B. OASDI (Old Age Survivors & Disability Insurance, a.k.a: "Social Security")($493,000) C. Medicaid ($250,000) D. Supplemental Security Income (SSI) ($41,365) E. Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) -- refundable portion only ($42,418) Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) ($26 Billion) Cash Benefits ($14.2B) *; services ($6.2B); child care ($2.4B); work activities ($2.1B) G. Food stamps (SNAP) ($90,317) (2005=$45Billion) * H. Low-income housing assistance ($31,695) * I. Child care and development block grant ($8.9 Billion) J. Head Start ($7,214)
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(Note to future INSTRUCTOR: see doc: "Fed Budget Outlays 1962-2015" in the "US Budget Primer" folder).
Note: Over the course of the term, we've seen lots of figures estimating federal, state and local spending on various social welfare programs. A problem that almost always arises is that we see these figures across multiple source readings, written in different years and focused on different aspects of spending and/or using different methods of calculation, inflation adjustment etc. All this leads to a cacophony of numbers. So, for the exam, any numbers you see or will use to make and evaluate claims about means-tested public assistance programs spending will be drawn from this list of programs. This data comes from the Congressional Budget Office (expenditure reports, 2010)
Questions to consider....
1. When was Social Security established? 1935 a. What was the name of the law (deceptively easy answer)? Social Security Act b. Under what extraordinary economic conditions was Social Security enacted? Huge unemployment rate and Great depression. 2. When was SSI established? 1972 under the Nixon administration 3. Who are the three primary beneficiary groups of the Old Age, Survivors and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program? 4. Who are the primary beneficiaries of the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program? 5. Does Unemployment Insurance (UI) cover all workers in all businesses? NO 6. Which program is larger in terms of the federal budget? a. SSI or Medicare? Medicare b. TANF or EITC? 2010 for example EITC c. Head Start or Food Stamps (SNAP)? Food Stamps
SECTION III: Policy Case Study: AFDC Transformed into TANF
Facts and Figures:
Note: Between the readings, lecture and discussion sections, there is a veritable cornucopia of data and factoids floating around for you, dear students, to potentially review. So, being compassionate and tenderhearted social workers, we've honed down this feast-sized mound of information to a manageable meal-sized plateful of key data-points and program facts. Rest assured that any data that you need to know and/or be generally familiar with will come from this study guide.
1. Be familiar with the data in tables 1 and 2 [re: welfare caseloads and expenditures].
Table 1: Historical Trends in AFDC/TANF enrollment EMPORTANT TO LOOK AT 1996!!!!
H istorical Trends in AFDC/ TAN F Enrollments, Selected Fiscal Years 1975 2002 Average Monthly N umber (in % of all Total Child Year Children on Families Recipients Children Population AFDC/ TAN F 1975 3,357 11,094 7,952 67,164 11.8 1980 3,642 10,597 7,320 63,754 11.5 1985 3,692 10,813 7,165 62,623 11.4 1990 3,974 11,460 7,755 63,942 12.1 1995 4,879 13,659 9,280 68,438 13.6 1996 4,543 12,645 8,671 69,109 12.5 1998 3,200 8,790 6,330 69,903 9.0 2000 2,265 5,943 4,385 72,330 6.1 2002 2,064 5,146 3,838 72,894 5.3 Source: 2004 Green Book
Table 2: Total Federal and State Spending on TANF Benefits and Services
k g Total Federal & State & Transfer (to other community and soc serv bloc rants) Spending on TAN F benefits and Services (all $ figures in BILLIONS of 2006 dollars ) Total Fed & State Federal ...Fed Spend State Year (& transfers) Spending w/ transfers Spending Spending
1987 1990 1994 1996 2000 2003 2006
$17.845 $18.633 $21.371 $19.425 $15.725 $17.810 $13.570
$17.845 $18.633 $21.371 $19.425 $19.848 $20.787 $16.422
$15.241 $15.868 $19.028 $18.204 $13.391 $11.052 $12.024
$33.086 $34.501 $40.400 $37.629 $33.239 $31.839 $28.446
2. ALSO be familiar with the following tables & charts in CHAPTER 8 of Harrell Rodgers' "American Poverty in a New Era of Reform:
a. Figure 8.1 (pct of TOTAL U.S. population--not child population like above table--on AFDC or TANF) b. Figure 8.3 (pct of welfare recipients participating in mandatory work). c. Figure 8.7 (on POOR single mothers work and welfare status).
3. Understand the following slides from the power point slides entitled "The Welfare Reform Debate"
CONCEPTUAL TABLES FROM WELFARE REFORM LECTURES
Mobility in job?
TANF can.... Push Recipients off the Rolls
Into the Job Market
Health Other Insurance? benefits?
(child care...)
Into a marriage or other dependent relationship Into Nothing (i.e. just kicked off)
Stability of job? Work conditions?
Or, with some creativity, it can mandate effort and activities
Remedial and or Higher Education Training
Other Services*
Different Ways Welfare policies and programs might reduce welfare roles
Option 1: Make Welfare "Pay"
Time Limit Reduce Benefits
Option 4: Make WORK pay
Raise Min Wage Universal Nat. Health Care Managed "projobs" economic policies
Increase onerous rules & supervision
Mandate Comm Work
Universal Day Care
Off Welfare
..And obtaining sustenance through...
Welfare Recipient (H o H)
LABOR MARKET Other family & friends Marriage
Option 2: Help Recipient become more Competitive in Labor Market
Education Supported Work Experience
Option 3: Ease the Transition
Transportation Assistance Extend FS & Medicaid Job Search Counseling
Training
Income Disregards
4. Understand how the following contextual factors that prevailed from the 1960's to the 1990's contributed to the consensus among liberals and conservatives that welfare needed to be reformed in some way.
a. Change in the basic family form
i. Single Parent Families and births to unmarried women. (see Appendix II for data on this) b. Women entering the workforce increases dramatically. c. Explosive Growth in Entitlement Spending (mostly Soc Sec, Medicare, Medicaid) d. Major Growth in % of population receiving welfare. i. Specifically, growth in the "participation rate" of AFDC (doubled) e. Increase in state spending on AFDC i. Both b/c more people applying and because benefit levels per person were up (1960-1976) f. Era of Slow Economic Growth. g. Era of contracting budgets (tax revolts)
5. Characteristics of the AFDC program. What did it do? a. Cash to families: i. Modified state by state (eligibility levels; benefit levels) ii. And generally low levels of cash assistance: b. An Entitlement: c. Automatic eligibility for Medicaid and other "in-kind" benefits: d. Imposed Modest Work Requirements: i. JOBS mandated 20% of recipients in a state be mandated to work. e. Provided Modest Work Supports: i. JOBS program mandated higher "earnings disregards"; transitional child care and Medicaid; as well as job training, basic education and community work experience.
6. TANF changed AFDC in the following ways: BE ABLE TO AT LEAST LIST 5 a. Entitlement is ended, TANF is a "Block Grant" b. Time Limits are imposed (60 months is maximum) c. Work Requirements are established for virtually all recipients d. Family Caps allowed but not mandated. e. Teen Parents must be at home, in school except extraordinary circumstances. f. Bonuses established to states to reduce OWB & increase marriage. g. Paternity establishment is made mandatory h. Legal immigrants w/o citizenship banned from support for 5 years. i. Child Care: expands funding by adding new pool of funding. i. States obligated to maintain funding levels in order to get new funds.
Questions to consider; Things to know re: AFDC and TANF 1. Be able to name at least 5 of the 9 major things about AFDC that were changed by the PRWORA when it established TANF.
2. What school of thought (re: poverty) is most reflected in the shift from AFDC to TANF? Which school of thought is LEAST reflected in this shift? Tanf is more likely to follow the culture of poverty theory. AFDC more of a social democratic theory.
3. What's the difference between human capital development and Work First approaches to welfare to work. a. Human capital development focused on work and training from a liberal stance like AFDC. Work first approaches TANF from a conservative point of view. 4. Name at least 2 criticisms that social democrats would make about TANF
a. Name at least 2 criticisms liberals would make b. Name at least 2 things CONSERVATIVES would say in defense of TANF 5. How one evaluates the success or failure of TANF has a lot to do with what indicators they use to define and measure success. For each of the three main schools of thought on poverty and welfare policy, cite 2 indicators they use to measure TANF outcomes and effects: a. Conservatives (culture of poverty): b. Liberals (human capital development): c. Soc Democrats (structural): *note: the latter two have pretty similar criteria 6. What purported social problems drove the public and policy makers' consensus belief that welfare (AFDC) had to be reformed? 7. Besides TANF, what other federal means tested programs help America's poor through IN KIND benefits? (hint: you can find programs in list on page 6). 8. Currently the Child Care Development Fund works basically like a block grant. If child care became an universal entitlement program (say the congress passed a law granting free child care to all parents with children under 5 years old..) would that move the U.S. welfare state incrementally closer to the INSTITUTIONAL or RESIDUAL welfare state model?
APPENDIX
APPENDIX I: Vocabulary and Key Concepts
1. The "deserving" and "undeserving" poor (why is the distinction important in American Social Policy?) 2. Know the principle of "less eligibility." Definition: an old concept from the English poor laws that stipulates that the dollar value of government public assistance should never be higher than, nor even approach, the dollar value of what one could earn in the labor market from a job (i.e. welfare should not compete with private sector wages). 3. The "human capital development" approach to welfare to work programming. - For example, welfare should provide lots of training and education opportunities for recipients. 4. The "Work First" approach to welfare to work programming. - For example, welfare should not provide extensive training and education opportunities for recipients but rather should mandate work, under the belief that all welfare recipients need is more work experience. 5. Devolution... of decision making authority to the states 6. Cost of Living Adjustments (COLA)... the idea that benefit levels should increase annually at the rate of inflation, for example, in social security. 7. Single Female Headed Families (or households) 8. Births to Unmarried Mothers
APPENDIX II: Data on demographic changes driving welfare reform
Note: You won't be tested on these data, but it will be helpful to be familiar with the general information that these tables
provide (e.g. it will be helpful to know that single female headed households have more than doubled as a pct of all households between 1970 and 2009...)
Rising percentage of single female-headed families
These tables illustrate the types of demographic changes that drove policy makers to think differently about what the function of AFDC should be, and eventually led to the consensus that it should be more work-oriented and we should drive the rolls down.
Table 3: Family Type as Percent of All Families
Year Two- parent headed families 70.2% 67.2% 68.1% 68.7% 68.4% 69.2% 71.9% 73.7% 78.5% 87.2% Total 29.8% 32.8% 31.9% 31.3% 31.6% 30.8% 28.1% 26.3% 21.5% 12.8% One-parent headed families Female Head Male head 25.4% 4.5% 26.4% 6.4% 26.1% 5.8% 25.8% 5.5% 26.6% 5.0% 26.6% 4.2% 24.2% 3.9% 23.2% 3.1% 19.4% 2.1% 11.5% 1.3%
..2009x ..2006 ..2003 ..2000 ..1996 ..1994 ..1990 ..1985 ..1980 ..1970
Source: U.S. Census
This table shows changes in the pct of families headed by a single parent; and in particular it illustrates one of the demographic changes driving concern among the public and policy makers about "the breakdown of the American family". You won't need to commit any of these data to memory, but it's worthwhile making sure you understand what this table is showing (i.e. what "story" it is telling) us in terms how American families were changing during the 1960's to the present and how these dynamics relate to welfare reform
Rising Pct of Births to Unmarried Mothers
Table 4. Number and percentage of births to unmarried women selected years 1980-2003
Rising Pct of Women in the workplace
Labor force Participation Rates (Bur. Labor Statistics) YearMen Women 1950 86.4 33.9 1960 83.3 37.7 1970 79.7 43.3 1980 77.4 51.5 1990 76.4 57.5 2000 74.8 59.9 2005 73.3 59.3 2010 72.6 59.7
Year
2003 2000 1995 1990 1985 1980
# of Births
1,415,995 1,347,043 1,253,976 1,165,384 828,174 665,747
Pct of all births
34.6 33.2 32.2 28.0 22.0 18.4
APPENDIX III: Structural Characteristics of Welfare State Programs
Entitlement Categorical vs. Nonor Entitlement Universal?
Entitlement Nonentitlement Entitlement Entitlement Entitlement (Closed ended) Entitlement Entitlement Entitlement
Policies
AFDC TANF SSI OASDI Unemployment Insurance Medicaid Medicare
Food Stamps (SNAP)
Benefit Type
Cash v. InKind
Stringency of Eligibility
v. Low Med High High Low Med-High Med Low Med
Administration Pop. Served Benefit Level Soc Insurance Federal v. OR Public "Deserving" vs. High v. Med State/Local Hi v. Medium Fed v. State v. Assistance "Undeserving" v. Low
Shared Shared Shared, but block grant Federal, w/ State level supplements Federal Shared Shared Federal Federal State (w Fed guidelines) State (w min Fed guidelines) Federal Federal State (w/ min Fed guidelines) State (w Fed guidelines) Federal Federal Undeserving Undeserving ? Mixed? Deserving Deserving?? Mixed (kids Yes; Parents? not so much) Deserving! Not very... Low Low Med Med-High Med Med Med-High Med-Low Public Assistance Public Assistance Leans Public Assistance Social Insurance Social Insurance Public Assistance Social Insurance Public Assistance
Funding Source
Categorical Mostly Cash (Means-tested) Categorical
(Means tested)
Cash & In Kind Cash Cash Cash In-Kind In-Kind In-Kind
Categorical (Means tested) Universal Categorical Categorical (Means tested) Universal Categorical (Means tested)
AFDC is shaded to denote that it is an historical artifact. It no longer exists: we refer to it here because a comparison between AFDC and TANF is relevant to the conversation about how the American Welfare State has changed over the last 30 years.
Definitions of Structural Categories Entitlement: Universal / Categorical: describes
Means that recipients have a legal right to benefit regardless of budget situations (i.e. if we project we need $300 B for Medicaid in 2011 & it turns out we need $315 B, we have to spend $315B. It's the opposite of a BLOCK GRANT, where if the appropriated amount of money runs out, the State is not obligated to keep spending on those that are technically eligible... a continuum of a program's coverage of the population; with "universal" meaning "everyone is covered" and categorical meaning "only those that fall within the eligibility boundaries is covered". 2 The most common type of categorical distinction is the "means-test"; i.e. a category that defines one's eligibility based on one's income falling below a certain level. But other categories clearly exist, such as age, disability-status, veterans' status etc.
Benefit Type (Cash vs. In-Kind):
Pretty clear. Cash benefits give you cash. In-Kind benefits represent every other kind of benefit, such as: health care, food, education, housing etc.
Stringency of Eligibility: (Wide vs.
Narrow) The degree to which a social welfare program's eligibility rules restricts access to that program's benefits. This is composed of two factors: 1) How narrow (small) is the number of people who are OFFICIALLY eligible for a program; and 2) How complex or onerous are its eligibility criteria. Note that complex, confusing and intrusive program eligibility rules are known to have the effect of driving down the % of eligible people who actually sign up to receive a program's benefits.
Funding Source
Also pretty straight forward; who pays for the program: the Federal, State or Local government or some "shared" combination? This matters because often the federal government is able to get states to implement national welfare policies by promising to pay for all, or most of a program's costs, so long as each state follows certain guidelines in how that program is to be structured.
Location of Administration
Who administers the program: Fed, State or local government? This issue is fairly complex and hard to easily characterize; but its very important because it determines the degree to which State or Local officials have DISCRETION on major decisions having to do with how a program is to be run on the day to day level. Will a federal program look pretty much the same from state to state? (Yes, if its federally administered, like social security or Medicare) Or, will it VARY from state to state, like TANF, where each state has the discretion to structure the program in very different ways.
Population Served
Benefit Level
This has to do more with the political Simply tracks the monetary value of the popularity of a program whether it is benefits distributed by a program. Why do seen by the American people as helping a we examine benefit levels? Because the "deserving" or "undeserving" way they benefit levels for different constituency. Of course, how the public programs are distributed (w/ social decides who is "deserving" or not may be security being relatively high and TANF based on all kinds of criteria that (while being relatively low, for example) tend to few will admit to it) may have more to do confirm the fact that American social with bigotry, xenophobia and the policy continually differentiates between protection of privilege than with any the deserving and undeserving poor, specific set of morally questionable In other words, benefit levels are one behaviors. indicator that the old English Poor Law Nonetheless, when a program tradition of "less eligibility" is alive and constituency is more marginalized from well: in programs for the able-bodied "mainstream" (e.g. by race, family adult poor we keep benefits so meager structure, education level) America, it that recipients will turn to work or family usually means lower political support for or other charity before they turn to the maintaining or expanding that program. State for help. Original Grid has only the first six categories. The grey shaded cells are simply two additional attributes that are less structural in nature, but are helpful sets of characteristics for differentiating programs.
A conceptual grid to keep in mind; there will be no exam questions that explicitly refer to this table. This is just here to help you think about welfare state programs in terms of their functions.
2
How does The State (i.e. "government") intervene on behalf of citizens who are at risk of not being able to provide for themselves via the labor market?
Type of Action
Conditions that limit Work
(or one's capacity to care for self / dependents)
Are they Direct Assistance Exempt from Work? Cash In-Kind Services
Provision of Help
Info Connections
Regulation, Supervision, Coordination of Discipline Help by Others
...of Individuals ...of Econ Entities NGO's, Informal care
OLD AGE DISABILITY Temporary Permanent NON-MARKET RESPONSIBILITIES Children Elders
LIMITS ON OPPORTUNITY (to work) Discrimination Human Capital Unemployment