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Assumptions the
Information Processing
Approach
Cognitive processes influence learning.
People are selective about what they pay
attention to and learn.
Meaning is personally constructed by the
learner and is influenced by prior knowledge,
experiences, and beliefs.
Meaning is constructed by the
learner
LEARNING AS A CONSTRUCTIVE
PROCESS
Learning: A long-term change in mental
representations or associations due to
experience
not brief and transitory but may not last
forever
presumably has its basis in the brain
produces change due to experience
What do YOU have to do in order
to see this dog?
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Learners construct (create) new knowledge.
Information-Processing
Approach
Information-processing theory represents a
variety of specific theories about human
cognition.
Less concerned with external behaviors than
with internal processes
Three-Stage Model
of Information Processing
Information-processing model
Terminology of Information
Processing
Sensory Memory
Memory (verb)-to save; (noun)-location where
saved
Encoding modify information for storage
Sensory memory - Holds fleeting sensory
data that we register but do not yet process
Unlimited capacity
Holds input in raw, uninterpreted form
Duration is extremely limited
Storage put in (place) in memory location
Visual (iconic) 1 second
Auditory (echoic) 2-3 seconds
Retrieval pull out information from memory
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Sensory Memory - Attention
In order to manage data, we pay attention to some
things and ignore others.
Criteria humans use to determine attention:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Selective attention examples
Do you see 4 people?
Size
Intensity
Novelty
Incongruity
Emotion
Personal significance
Working Memory
Working Memory
Working memory - Processes information
from sensory memory, maintains new
information in a heightened state of activity,
and retrieves task-relevant information from
long-term memory so that we can work with
it
Central executive- information supervisor
within working memory
Focusing attention
Integrating information from both sensory and
long term memory
Selecting what strategies to use to process
information, planning, and organizing complex
behavior
Three Assistants
of Central Executive
Phonological loop Allows for temporary
storage and rehearsal of auditory information
Visuospatial sketchpad Temporary storage and
rehearsal of visual information
Episodic buffer Integrates information from
these and long-term memory into a single
representation
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Working Memory:
Capacity and Duration
In contrast to sensory memory, working
memory can only hold 5-9 chunks of data at a
time.
More recent research focuses on rehearsal of items in
working memory.
Information in working memory is typically lost
within 5-20 seconds.
Encoding Processes
Encoding Process in which we modify or
reformat information to prepare it for longterm storage.
Automatic processing
Effortful processing Includes conscious effort
and attention
Duration can be extended if information is actively
rehearsed.
Encoding Processes:
Rehearsal
Encoding Strategies
Maintenance rehearsal Repeating
information over and over so that it can be
indefinitely maintained in working memory
Elaborative rehearsal - Connecting new
information to prior knowledge
Mnemonic devices Aids designed to help
students remember information by making it
more meaningful
Acronyms, chain mnemonics, keywords
Organizational strategies
Chunking Grouping information together in a
meaningful way
Hierarchies Dividing broad concepts into narrower
concepts or facts
Visual imagery Constructing mental pictures
Knowledge Types
Declarative (explicit) knowing
that
Procedural (implicit) knowing how
Conditional knowing why or when
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STORAGE PRINCIPLE:
Some Long-Term
Memory Storage
Processes are More
Effective than Others
Rote Learning:
- rehearsal
Meaningful Learning:
- elaboration
- organization
- visual imagery
Remember, Meaningful
Learning works.
Try to Learn the following:
Mgniracosaakceloc
Get ready for the next one
Storage in memory:
Encoding
carolinagamecocks
Which is easier to remember? And Why?
Serial Position Curve
Another Explanation:
The Levels of Processing
Model
Sternberg text, pp. 293.
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Long-Term Memory
Implicit/Explicit Knowledge
Long-term memory Enables storage of a
huge amount of information and retains it for
days, week, or years
Explicit knowledge Information we are
consciously aware of and use
Implicit knowledge Information we are not
as aware of:
Conditioned responses
Common routines and procedures
Triggering related concepts in long-term memory
Four Types of Knowledge
How Memories Are Stored
Memory Episodic of a certain episode or
event
Declarative (semantic knowledge) - A
compilation of verbal information or facts
Procedural Knowing how to do something
Conceptual Knowing why something is the
case
Dual processing theory Information is stored
best when it is encoded in both visual and verbal
forms.
Schema Theory
Retrieval of Memories
Network theory Information is stored as
propositions and then linked together in
propositional networks.
Schema theory Information that fits easily into
an existing conceptual framework (schema) is
more easily understood and remembered.
Activation level The degree of availability of
information in long-term memory
Retrieval clues Hints about where to look
for a particular piece of information
Context The setting or circumstances
around a particular place, feeling, or event
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Retrieval of Memories
Forgetting
Recall Retrieval of information not in
conscious awareness
Encoding failure Information never
successfully encoded
Storage decay Memory of new information
fades quickly and levels out
Essay questions
Recognition Retrieval of information
through identification
Multiple-choice questions
Causes of Retrieval Failure
Interference Learning items interferes with the
retrieval of other information.
Proactive interference Prior knowledge interferes
with retrieval of new information.
Retroactive interference New knowledge interferes
with retrieval of prior knowledge.
Reconstruction error Information is only
partially recalled, and then we fill in the gaps
with assumptions or guesses.
Retrieval failure Inability to pull up a mental
record of information we are certain we
learned
Differences Sensory Memory
Younger children process information more
slowly than older children.
Selective attention increases with age.
Girls may have a slight advantage over boys
in keeping attention focused or in recalling
details.
Differences Working Memory
Differences Strategy Use
Young children seem to have less working
memory capacity than older children.
Children aged 14-18 months show some
rehearsal-like behaviors.
Older individuals may process information faster.
Younger children may be encountering new
information for the first time.
As they age, children develop ability to resist
extraneous information.
Also, they gain more experience with many
types of knowledge.
Middle school Strategies become more
effective.
Older children Use a wide array of strategies.
Attention resources are limited in younger
children.
Subroutines are not yet automatic in younger
children.
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Helping Students Pay
Attention
Helping Students Pay
Attention
Plan for attention
Keep students attention engaged:
Keep developmental levels in mind
Vary instructional methods.
Engage curiosity
Get students physically involved.
Seating arrangements
Encourage interaction.
Minimize distractions
Ask questions.
Use attention signals These tell students
when to redirect attention.
Helping Students Pay
Attention
Respect attentional limits:
Read body language.
Provide frequent breaks.
Allow for discussion time.
Ask for written responses.
Helping Students
Store and Retrieve
Information
Organization
Clear and logical presentation
Help students see how information is related
Connect new information to prior knowledge
Use appropriate wait time
Helping Students
Store and Retrieve
Conceptual understanding
Information
Help students identify key concepts.
Focus on meaning.
Pause, repeat, ask students to paraphrase.
Provide practice time, and review information.
Distribute practice opportunities over time.
Helping Students
Store and Retrieve
Information
Task analysis A common method for breaking
down a large instructional task into manageable
parts
Identify the specific knowledge, behaviors, or
cognitive processes necessary to master a particular
skill.
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Helping Students
Store and Retrieve
Information
Automaticity versus external memory aids
It is possible to free up working memory with the use
of external aids (calculators, dictionaries).
Use should always match the objective of the lesson.
Use of tools should not take the place of
automaticity.
Helping Students
Store and Retrieve
Information
Acquisition of procedural knowledge
Rehearsing
Watching a model
Receiving guidance and/or feedback from a
mentor
Breaking down information into a series of
smaller, manageable tasks
Identifying the key components
Learning by doing
STORAGE PRINCIPLE
Your working memory:
Read these words
Practice makes Knowledge More Automatic and
Durable
Practice results in automaticity.
Practice increases procedural knowledge.
The Stroop Effect
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