for 1.
Introduction
1.1
Overview
1.2
Justification this research
1.2.1
Gaps in the academic literature
1.2.2
Fast food advertising to children
1.3
Significance of the methodology
1.4
Outline of the dissertation
Overview
Obesity is a growing concern worldwide, particularly in developed nations. Obesity has now
become an epidemic which is spreading across the effecting people of every age. The prevalence
of obesity among children is increasing at an alarming rate. Surveys conducted on school-aged
children and adolescents have shown the increasing rate of obesity from past years
The causes of obesity are considered to be changes in social lifestyles, changes micronutrientpoor foods, micronutrient-poor foods, heavy marketing of fast food outlets, and beverages, intake
of energy dense food and less physical exercise. Obesity not only itself is a disease but it leads to
several other chronic diseases, like asthma in childhood, gastro, other illnesses, and obesity in
childhood may lead to severe diseases like diabetes type 2, cardiovascular diseases, cancer and
few other diseases in adulthood (Schwarz et al., 2011).
Researches have concluded that major media of reaching children through advertisement is
Television. A study conducted by Harris, Bargh and Brownell (2009) concluded the effect of
television advertisement on children and its frequency during children viewing hours. It was
drawn that children are persuaded by the television advertisement and tend to buy that what they
watch on television. And few studies also concluded that non-core food advertisements were
higher in number during children viewing hours which influence children.
The World Health Organization is putting its efforts in controlling this increasing epidemic. It has
laid several regulations for the member countries to obey. Many countries like America and New
Zealand struggling at their own end and trying to contribute towards this war against obesity but
are still unable to achieve the desired objectives like us. They are still unable to lay down
effective regulations and implementation of regulations possible in their countries.
Childhood Obesity Epidemic:
The frequency of childhood obesity has been increasing globally. According to the facts given by
the WHO, in 2010, there were nearly 43 million children who are obese and under 5 years of age.
Obesity has increased more than two fold since 1980. Out of the total population of the world,
65% live in the countries where people are dying due to obesity and overweight 1. According to
the International Obesity Task Force, 10% of school going children around the globe are found to
be obese or overweight (Lobstein et al., 2004).
WHO defines the obesity and overweight as: abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may
impair health (p.25). The index to measure the obesity is BMI (Body Mass index) which
defines the weight a child should have matching its height and age (Ogden et al., 2002).
Individuals having BMI in the range of 18.5-25 are considered having normal weight, those with
the body mass ranging between 25-30 are considered as overweight where body mass equal to
and greater 30 is considered as obese.
1 Source: World Health Organization, extracted from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html updated (March, 2011)
Childhood obesity has become a serious concern especially in western countries. The rate of
prevalence of obesity is much higher in developed nations as compared to the developing
nations, but still it is becoming increasingly significant in developing countries as well (Lobstein
et al., 2004). In Australia, 11 percent of children are obese while 17% are overweight (Shepherd,
2008). The same situation exists in other developed nations. For example, In Canada, children
and adolescents aged 2-17 years, 26% are obese or overweight out of which, 8% were obese and
18% overweight, according to the statistics published by the Heart and Stroke Foundation of
Canada. Similarly in USA, according to 2007-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (NHANES) there are 16.9% children are obese who aged 6-19 years. This shows that
Australia has one of the highest rates of obese/overweight children in the developed world.
According to the WHO report, obesity and overweight is ranked as the fifth leading cause of
death in the world.
Childhood obesity in Australia is rising and it is increasing at the rate of 1% per annum. At this
rate approximately half of all youth will be obese by 2025. Surveys also showed that in the
1990s, obesity increased 0.5% annually among children in USA and Brazil (Lobstein et al.,
2004). According to NSW Schools Physical Activity and Nutrition Survey (SPANS) data in 2004
25% of boys and 23.3% of girls in NSW were overweight or obese. It is estimated that 23%-27%
of Australian children are overweight and 5-9% are obese (Carter, 2006).
Figure (1)
Prevalence of overweight and obesity among school-age children in global regions. Overweight and obesity defined
by IOTF criteria. Children aged 517 years, based on surveys in different years after 1990.
Justification for this research
Causes of Childhood Obesity:
Janssen et al., (2005), examined that obese children are less involved in physical activities and
have higher television viewing timings in comparison with normal weight children. Just sitting
and eating food and particularly food that is higher in fats and sugar increase the weight leading
to obesity. Similarly the WHO has considered the sedentary lifestyle to be a major cause of
obesity, because there is an imbalance in energy intake and its consumption. The dietary habits
play an important role. Energy dense food intake has increased while the physical activity has
decreased. The accumulation of fats can be reduced by getting involved in physical activities but
television and advent of latest media and technology has reduced the physical activities. Obese
children mostly likes to play games at play stations, computer or watch cartoons and movies on
televisions.
Anderson and Butcher (2006) examined that energy intake is greater in obese children and they
do not utilise that energy through physical activities. A NSW publication on obesity states the
reasons of obesity a being lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating patterns along with some
genetic combinations and lifestyle. There may be any of the above reason the combination of few
or may be all.
The increased obesity is ignited by changes in food market, changes in lifestyles, in school
settings and preferences for food. Availability of high calories and energy dense food even in
schools, working parents, use of high calories food due to its quick and convenient availability
are attributing factors to all this (Anderson & Butcher, 2006). Experts have categorised the
convenience food as high in energy content and non core food and frequent use without healthy
activities can lead to over weight and obesity (Dixon et al., 2006). When experts declared the
convenience food as being unhealthy, the producers and advertisers protested on this but
researchers keep on proving it harmful and adding to increased obesity.
There are several factors which influence the choice of food, while food advertising is
considered as having a quite major part among those. Food marketers are targeting children and
teenagers since creating a base for future market (Story & French, 2004). Foods offered in the
market are high in fats and sugar contents thus high in calories. They watch peers having the
same food, so they are never bothered to think its negatives but are impressed by such practice.
In the last decade, the researchers are focused on examining the relationship between dietary
habits and food advertising particularly television and evidences are establishing such
relationship proving their hypothesis right (Livingstone, 2006). A study conducted by NSW
(2002) found that half of all the food advertised on television during children program is non-
core food. Those children who are exposed to television advertising are influenced in their food
preferences rather those who are not (Livingstone, 2006).
A study conducted by Gorn and Goldberg (1982) found that fruit related advertisements created
in children drinking more orange juice, while adverts for sweets resulted in them drinking less
orange juice. It means that whatever is displayed to children they are attracted towards it hence
the attractive ads shown on television grabs their attention influencing their preferences.
In the study conducted by Halford et al, (2004), they examined that children after exposure of
food products ate more and especially obese children remembered the food ads more.
Since 2000, major researches have been about the relationship of obesity and food advertising
majorly through television and all these have evidenced that television advertising particularly
influence the food pattern, increasing unhealthy food preferences and energy dense diet thus
causing obesity and overweight (Livingstone, 2006).
Fernando-Armesto (2001) found during his study that advertisement is necessary for the
convenience foods producers. They need to market it to people and advertisement is the only
way they can reach people. There are different medium, like retails, advertisers or other third
parties who are busy promoting and making this food accessible to people. There are different
regulatory impositions on the marketers but are not practised and lack force at some points.
A study conducted in Australia to check whether the Children Television Standards (CTS) are
complied with or not. The results indicated that there were breaches of the regulation found in
advertisements. Furthermore it was found that regulatory system needs to improve itself as well.
There are some points lacking that should be worked on. (Morton et al., 2005).
A nutritional analysis administered to find the advertising pattern in UK gave results that 95% of
the advertisements was for foods that were high in fat, sugar or salt. Similarly in US, food is
most advertised product on TV and around 50% of the ads are targeted to children. This shows
the non core food advertising being the global issue (Story & French, 2004). A study conducted
on 13 countries also showed that Australia, US and UK are the countries which have the most
food advertisements (Dibb & Haggart, 1996).
A study in which a survey was administered to 15-16 year old pupils in schools categorised in
two groups, one receiving channel one and other is not. It was examined that those who viewed
the products on channel one had favourable reviews about them and named those brand which
they would prefer to buy as compared to the other group (Greenberg & Brand, 1993).
Similarly in another study conducted by Jarret, et al., (2003) devised an experiment in which
there were two groups of children who were shown cartoons, one group was introduced with
advertisements during cartoons while the others were not and the results were favourable for the
products shown in ads and children who were exposed to ads showed greater interest in the
products whose ads were shown twice. It shows the influence of television advertising among
children. And after watching such advertisement they influenced their parents to buy them such
products. There are several studies showing the same results in which food advertising on
television has impacted the preferences for food and the children who have the hobby of
watching TV are involved in habit of eating fast food and other non core food.
It was found in a study conducted in Mexico that out of all food advertisements aired on
television during children viewing hour, 50% of those were directed towards children. Moreover
50% of all food adverts were about snacks, patio chips, sweets, fast food etc (Ramrez-Ley,
2009). Such a huge exposure to unhealthy food particularly geared towards them, influence their
choice of food and preferences (Anschutz et al., 2009). It was documented in a research that 37%
(USA) and 49% (UK) of the advertisements broadcast during childrens programming were
food-related, similar trend was that Australian Centre for Health Promotion found in Australia,
55% of food advertisements were those foods high in fat and/or sugar, 17% were candies and
13% fast foods (Ramrez-Ley, 2009). A review of food advertisements in New Zealand showed
that there was an average of 12 food advertisements per hour in 2006 (Wilson 2006). Even a
study conducted by cancer council NSW in 2005 showed that unhealthy food advertisement is
82% of all food advertisement on television (Position Statement, 2009). It is in fact higher than
other countries.
An average of 10.6 advertisements per hour, of unhealthy foods was aired on commercial
television in Sydney during most popular children programs in 2007. Moreover fast food
restaurant advertisements were twice in proportion during most popular children programs as
compared to others ones (Hattersley, 2007). A report by Australian Centre for Health Promotion
stated that it was recorded that on channel 10 the unhealthy food adverts were found to be
47.4%.
It was also suggested in a research that socio economic status in terms of money and education is
associated with obesity and intake of unhealthy food. As the research found that white girls
having good socio economic status in USA were not obese and food intake was normal, while in
black girls with lower socio economic status, the obesity was found to be greater and television
viewing were more, and also the intake of unhealthy food was higher (Kim wt al., 1999).
Sometimes promotional techniques involves putting a popular cartoon toy within the food packet
or giving it with a fast food meal like at McDonalds and other fast food restaurants (Kaiser,
2004). It attracts children towards food. So advertisement through different media, not only the
television may be the major source of advertising communication to the public.
Impact of Childhood Obesity:
According to report presented by ANHW, there are over 5,700 children aged 0-14 years had Type
1 diabetes in Australia (Australia's National Agency for Health and Welfare, 2008). Australians
reporting heart, stroke and vascular diseases aged 15 years and over were much more likely to be
classified as overweight or obese (65% compared with 51%). Cardiovascular disease (CVD),
diabetes and chronic kidney disease (CKD) account for approximately quarter of the burden of
disease in Australia2.
Prevention Methods:
Obesity can be checked and prevented by taking particular measures and applying appropriate
regulations (WHO, 2011). It is also concluded in their study that the activities and daily routines
of the children must be modified to decrease the obesity, such as the habit of viewing television
must be checked and reduced and the involvement in physical activities must be increased.
There are several studies and reports that promote policies and measure to check the non core
food consumption and it advertisement to children and youth. Public service messages and
awareness campaigns can be useful to tell them the effects of the energy dense food, exercise
must be promoted and there must be healthy activities for children and youth (Kaiser, 2004). To
check obesity, WHO recommends limiting the use of non-core food items but the trends are
opposite to it. Excessive advertisement of non core food items has led to more and more
consumption of such items resulting in obesity and overweight (WHO, 2011).
Several
Governments have taken regulatory actions to check the food advertising specifically to children
and reduce the exposure of energy dense and high in fat content food (Broadcasting Commission
of Ireland, 2004; OFCOM, 2006).
2 Source: Obesity in Australia; Facts and Figures, extracted from < http://www.modi.monash.edu.au/obesity-factsfigures/obesity-in-australia/>
Children Television Standards (CTS) in Australia covers only free-to-air channels and are very
limited in scope. These standards are put a restriction on advertisement during C and P
programs while mostly children watch television after these timings. Majorly the children
viewing hours were found to be from 7:00 to 8:00 pm or 9:00pm, and channels are free to air
unhealthy food ads during these hours without any restriction (Position Statement, 2009).
Cancer Council Australia has mentioned in their statement that putting a stop on unhealthy food
television advertisement can help reducing the increasing rate of obesity.
A very convincing and effective regulatory scenario presented to prevent the obesity and
unhealthy eating pattern was to restrict or ban the unhealthy food advertisement from 7:00 pm to
8:30 pm (Position statement, 2009)
Gaps in the academic literature
In mostly researches the television viewing has been analysed as major factor contributing to
obesity and overweight in terms of exposure to advertisement. There are factors which are
associated to television watching that is snacking while watching television and physical
inactivity, which should also be researched on to get the effect of these factors and a then a
comparison should be made to see the most effecting factor (Livingstone & helsper, 2004).
Besides the attitude of parents counts a lot, if watching television is causing children to influence
their parents to buy them unhealthy food, how do parents respond to this? Children can not get it
unless parents buy those (Zuwicki et al., the 2004); social trends have changed which should also
be considered (Livingstone, 2006). Children eat snacks and food while watching television but
that eating behaviour is a result of watching television advertisement; there have not been any
attempts to get the answer to this (Cancer Council Australia, 2009).
Significance of the method
The third point on which the justification of this research is based lies in the employed
methodology. While scaling methods such as the Likert scale hold a number of disadvantages,
for example forcing respondents to rate all options on a scale despite their real consumption
interest in the specific alternative, the use of the observation method eliminates these disputable
characteristics.
Outline of the dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. The first chapter has introduced the importance of
understanding advertising to children and provided a theoretical, a practical and a
methodological justification for the research at hand. The second chapter presents relevant
academic literature in the fields of advertising and advertising to children and points out current
gaps. Moreover, the conceptual development of the thesis is stated. The third chapter refers to the
employed methodology and research structure. The analysis of the childrens advertising is
conducted in chapter four. Chapter five then points out conclusions, implications for theory and
practice, limitations as well as further research areas.
Literature Review
2.
Literature review
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Marketing for Children
2.1 Introduction
Obesity is increasing day by day in children and food advertisements are promoting junk food so
that children become more attractive to them. TV food advertising increases snack consumption
and may contribute to the obesity epidemic, and that efforts to reduce unhealthy food advertising
to children are urgently needed. In addition, they highlight the need to increase awareness of the
potential automatic effects of food advertising on eating behavior. Current industry efforts to
self-regulate TV food advertising to youth are limited to children 12 years and under. Obesity in
children are often related to chronic diseases (i.e. heart disease, Type II diabetes ) later in life
(Smith, Schmerlaib et al. 1998; Tsiros, Sinn et al. 2008). In Australia, Type II diabetes is
preventable in 90 % of the cases and is estimated to cost the nation in excess of AUD $3 billion
annually alone (Armstrong, Gillespie et al. 2007). There is an increasing trend of obese or
overweight children in Australia. In Queensland, 21% of children aged 5 - 17 years are
overweight or obese but however it is 3% lower than children in New South Wales (Thorburn
2005).`
Literature provides much information about the quantity of food advertising and the types of
foods advertised. Little is known, however, about the food attitudes and behaviours implicit in
this advertising and how children might interpret these messages. This study addresses the first
of these issues by examining the themes most evident in a sample of food advertisements
targeting children. The increasing rate of obesity in children may be attributed to the increasing
consumption of non-core foods (Bell, Kremer et al. 2005). To maintain a healthy diet, a child has
to enjoy a large variety of core foods (i.e. vegetables, fruits, cereals, dairy foods and lean meats)
(Smith, Schmerlaib et al. 1998 ; Alliance 2001). Non-core foods are high in sugar and fat , as
well as having low-nutritional value (Smith, Schmerlaib et al. 1998 ; Bell, Kremer et al. 2005).
Examples of non-core foods may include fast-food, confectionary, snack foods (i.e. potato chips)
(Kelly and Chapman 2007). Increased consumption of non-core foods has been related to food
advertising strategies which are likely to influence children. Television advertising was been
identified as a major medium which may influence the eating behaviours of children in the world
as well as Australia (Brindal, Mohr et al. 2008 ; Morley, Chapman et al. 2008 ; Kelly, Halford et
al. 2010). Regular high non-core food consumption may lead to obesity and dental caries in a
child (Lobstein and Dibb 2005; Brindal, Mohr et al. 2008).
The obesity epidemic in children is an enormous, societal problem with far reaching
consequences. Currently, 32% of children are obese or overweight. The American Heart
Association (AHA) places a high priority on addressing the nations childhood obesity epidemic
because childhood obesity usually tracks into adulthood. The projected increase in obesity could
reverse much of the progress made in the fight against cardiovascular diseases and stroke.
Inappropriate consumption of low nutrient, high calorie foods contributes to energy imbalance.
Consequently, the AHA sees no ethical, political, scientific, or social justification for marketing
and advertising low-nutrient, high-calorie foods to children and supports efforts to diminish this
practice in the United States. Television and other electronic media are a pervasive influence on
childrens lives. An estimated 98% of all Australian children ranging from 5-14 years old watch
television during their spare time (Carter, 2006). Most of these children will be exposed to noncore food advertisements which may lead to unhealthy eating habits and obesity. At least 25% of
all children in Australia are obese (Neville, Thomas et al. 2005; Carter 2006). Carter (2006) also
pointed out that Australia exposed children to the most television food advertising compared to
the USA, UK, New Zealand and 11 other European countries. The higher the exposure to junk
food, the more likely the children may be more at risk of obesity. The proportion of unhealthy
food advertisements were higher in 2008 than 2005 ( Chapman, Nicholas et al. 2006; Morley,
Chapman et al. 2008). They are also bombarded with carefully crafted marketing tactics
employed in multiple environments such as the Internet, magazines, schools, product placement,
incentive programs, video games, social networking sites, podcasts, and cell phones, all designed
to improve brand recognition and increase sales. In addition to advertising, the packaging on less
healthy foods is often misleading to parents and children.
Childrens daily television viewing hours have been correlated considerably with reported
demand by children for advertised foods in a global study ( Wang and Lobstein 2006). It suggests
finding out the high impact ads related to food advertising that causes children to be attracted
towards fast food. Childrens exposure to attractive, colourful and fun commercials may be
directly associated with more positive views towards non-core foods especially fast food ( Dixon,
Scully et al. 2007; Kelly, Smith et al. 2007; Mehta, Coveney et al. 2010). Children also tend to
demand non-core food advertised on television because it is shown to be tasty, fun and
attractive coupled with aggressive marketing strategies, such as cartoons, toys and competitions
(Brownell 2004; Kelly, Hattersley et al. 2008; Pfund 2011). Globally, 80 % of all food
advertisements found in programs targeted at children were non-core foods. Non-core foods
comprised of 71 % to 74 % of food advertisements in comedy, sports and reality shows.
2.2 Marketing for Children
In looking at the different marketing strategies utilized by todays popular food producers,
however, it appears that it is the age of a products target audience that dictates the way in which
a product is marketed. Recent research has shown that when advertising towards children
producers often take advantage of television commercials, web advertisements, cartoons, and
celebrity endorsements. It has also shown that when marketing towards adults, journal articles
and television commercials discussing a products particular effects on health and wellness
emerge as the most successful. Despite this great wealth of information concerning the
worldwide as well as nationwide effects of different food marketing strategies on varying age
populations, there has been little research conducted or information published concerning the
effects these same strategies have on consumers Obese children did recognize a greater number
of food than non-food advertisements from TV(Halford et al., 2004). A similar effect was seen in
the overweight children, whereas in the children with a BMI in the healthy range this difference
between conditions did not appear. When it comes to children, however, television seems to be
the undeniable favorite for learning about foods. Internet advertisements also had substantial
influence on children, but were still largely less popular than television (Batada et al., 2008).
Children, however, seemed to be influenced more by sports personalities and doctors than
scientific studies. Prior knowledge tells us that children often idolize athletes and that many kids
trust that doctors are concerned with their overall well being, thus if athletes or doctors endorse
a product children would be more apt happy to embrace it.
Such aggressive food advertising tactics may influence children as unwitting consumers towards
non-core food. Furthermore, children may have greater influence on their parents in regards to
their choice of non-core foods. Children, who are more exposed to non-core food advertising on
75% of the occasion, are more in conflict with their parents on the matter of preference and
choice of food (Carter, 2006). Cost and packaging may be another issue on why children and
parents choose to pick non-core foods (Bell, Kremer et al. 2005; Reading 2008; Radnitz, Byrne
et al. 2009; Mehta, Coveney et al. 2010). Furthermore in-school marketing, product placements,
Kids club, internet and Toys and products with brand logos were used as an alternate media to
television in order to attract children (Story & French, 2004). In Australia, there are 43.9% of
childrens websites contain food advertisement (Kelly, Bochynska, Kornman & Chapman,
2008).
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