Market Black Birth Control: Contraceptive Enterpreneurship and Criminality in the Gilded
Age
Author(s): Andrea Tone
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 87, No. 2 (Sep., 2000), pp. 435-459
Published by: Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2568759 .
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BlackMarketBirthControl:
Contraceptiventrepreneurship
E
in
and Criminality theGildedAge
AndreaTone
i
h
F
s
SarahChase'sarrestn May 1878 caught erbysurprise.orfour ears hehad been
y
A graduate f
in
w
i
o
selling ontraceptives Manhattan nd Brooklyn ithoutncident.
c
a
wh
theCleveland omeopathic ollege, hasehadmovedtoManhattan ith eryoung
H
C
C
in
o
t
a
a
and
l
daughter 1874,earning livingecturingn physiology sexologyo men's nd
o
h
women's roups t church nd meeting alls.At theconclusion f hertalks, hase
C
g
a
a
in
t
s
soldbirth ontrol, hich healso advertised circularsentthroughhemail.1
c
w
s
and
Chase'sactivitiesiolated n 1873 federalaw thatbannedthedissemination
a
l
v
o
t
distributionf contraceptives
through he mail or acrossstatelines.In 1878 its
f
chiefenforcer,nthony omstock, hiefagentof the New YorkSociety orthe
A
C
c
o
b
a
Suppression f Vice (NYSsv) and postalinspector y congressionalppointment,
t
M
h
h
plotted erarrest. dopting hepseudonym r. Farnsworth,e wroteChase and
A
fh
T
a
a meetingt herhometo purchase douching yringeor iswife. he day
a
s
arranged
t
w
G
after hesale,Comstock eturnedo Chase'sdwelling iththedetective ames .
t
r
J
f
Howe of theTwenty-sixth
w
t
Precinct, ho pretended o need a syringe orhis wife
h
too.When Chasesoldhimone,Howe disclosed istrueidentity,
h
served erwithan
C
a
arrest arrant,nd seizedsixother yringesoundon thepremises. omstock nd
a
f
w
s
s
Howe escorted hase to theTombs,thecity ail,where hewas released n fifteen
C
j
o
C
b
t
P
hundred ollars ail. In a letter o his boss at theUnitedStates ostOffice, omd
T
AndreaTone is an associateprofessorf history t the GeorgiaInstitute f Technology. he authorwishesto
o
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o
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thank usanArmeny, ichaelBellesiles, ill Deverell, awrence riedman, ou Galambos,Gus Giebelhaus, ally
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S
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Gordon,Elke Kluge,KarenLystra, argaret arsh,GregNobles, David Nord, Phil Scranton, avid Thelen,
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r
f
a
s
John one,SteveUsselman, iz Watkins, nd anonymous eviewersortheir uggestions. esearch orthisarticle
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was fundedby the National Endowment orthe Humanities, he Huntington ibrary,nd the GeorgiaTech
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Foundation. rafts f thisarticle erepresentedt theAmerican ssociation ortheHistory f Medicineconfero
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and
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ence,theHagleyCenter ortheHistory f Business, echnology, Society, heCalifornianstitutefTechnolo
Committee ortheHumanities, nd
f
a
ogyseminar n PublicPolicy, cience,and Ethics,theCaltech-Huntington
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theGeorgeDock Society n theHistory f Medicine.
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Readers aycontact one at [e-mail].
m
C
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P
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S
R
'Anthony omstock o David B. Parker, une1, 1878, box 27, PostalInspection ervice ecords, ostOffice
Department ecords,RG 28 (NationalArchives, ashington, .C.); New YorkTimes, ay 10, 1878, p. 1;
R
W
D
M
i
NationalPoliceGazette, ay 21, 1878, p. 14. SarahChase listedherself s a physiciann thecitydirectory.ee
M
a
S
1882-83 New York ity irectory
CD
(New York,1882), s.v. "Chase, FrankB." D. M. Bennett, nthony omstock:
A
C
His Career fCruelty Crime 1878; New York,1971), 1074.
o
and
(
The JournalfAmerican istory
o
H
September000
2
435
436
The JournalfAmerican istory
o
H
September000
2
d
The
stock erided hase's ullibility. contraceptive
C
g
had
h
entrepreneur misjudgeder
t
o
c
o
l
abilityo"keep utofthe lutchesfthe aw."2
At
Butit was Comstock hohad miscalculated. Chase's earing, all-male
w
an
h
t
grandury ecided here asinsufficient
jd
t
w
evidenceowarranttrial. omstock as
a
C
w
N
outraged demandedsecond earing.heprosecuting
and
a
h
T
refused.otto
attorney
be thwarted,
Comstockneakedntothegrandury oom ndpersuaded fores
i
j
r
a
the
mantosign wobills f indictment
t
o
Comstockadprepared. prosecutor
h
The
reprimanded imand thenentered nonle rosequi orbothindictments Chase's
h
a
p
f
at
arraignment,
formally
dismissing charges.hasepicked pwhere heprosecutor
all
C
t
u
left ff. hefiled tenthousand-dollar suit gainst omstockor alse rrest.3
oS
a
civil a
C
ff a
Althoughhase ost he ountersuit, asshe, otComstock,hoemerged
C
l tc
itw
n
w
the
in their requent
victor
f
skirmishes.
Between878and 1900Chase asarrested
1
w
five
times. nly nce, hen patientiedfollowing abortion, arrest toa jail
Oo
wa
d
an
did
lead
term or hase;that onvictionasnotfor irth ontrol,utfor bortion.ignififC
b
c
w
b
a
c
S
cantly,hase'smprisonmentnotaffecter iews rbusinessractices.fterer
C
i
hv
did
o
p
Ah
releaseheresumederopenendorsement saleof contraceptives. June ,
s
h
On
and
4
1900,shewasagainarrestedyComstock n thecharge f circulating
b
o
o
articles
to preventonception. nce again, grandury efusedo indict er. s in the
O
a
t
hA
c
j
r
C
b
wt
h
t
i
h
m
past, hase's rush ith helawleft erfree o continueertraden black arket
birth ontrol.4
c
We know ittle boutSarahChaseand other ontraceptive
l
a
who
c
entrepreneurs
carriedn their usinesses birth ontrol ecame crime. cholars hohave
o
b
after
c
b
a
S
w
b
m
studiedhemodern irth ontrol ovement typically
t
c
have
its
framed history a
as
taleof physicians,
and
A
policy akers, reproductive activists.s a result, e
m
w
rights
know lotabout uch igures Margaret
a
sf
as
Sanger, impediments eproductive
legal
tor
and m
of
tb
o
rights, the edicalizationcontraception littlebout he usinessfbirth
but
a
fa
controls itevolvedromn illicitradento neofthe ost uccessful
a
io
t
ms
"legitimate"
in
industriesAmericanistory.5
h
2 "Report f Persons rrested ndertheAuspices f theNew York ociety or heSuppression f Vice for he
o
A
U
o
S
ft
o
t
Year 1878," container , Recordsof the New YorkSocietyforthe Suppression f Vice (Manuscript ivision,
1
o
D
o
Library f Congress, ashington, .C.); Comstockto Parker, une1, 1878, box 27, PostalInspection ervice
W
D
J
S
Records;Bennett, nthony omstock,074-75; New York imes, ay 10, 1878, p. 1; NationalPoliceGazette,
A
C
1
T
M
May21, 1878, p. 4.
3New York imes, une26, 1888, p. 1; Comstockto Parker, une1, 1878, box 27, PostalInspection ervice
T
J
J
S
Records; Report f Persons rrested 1878"; NationalPoliceGazette, une 6, 1888, p. 1; ibid.,July 0, 1878,
"
o
A
...
J2
2
p. 1; Bennett, nthonyomstock,
A
C
1080.
o
A
U
ft
o
t
S
4"Report of Persons rrested ndertheAuspices f theNew York ociety or heSuppression f Vice for he
Year1900," container , Records f theNew YorkSociety ortheSuppression f Vice; Janet arrell rodie,Cono
3
f
o
F
B
andAbortion Nineteenth-Century
in
traception
AmericaIthaca,1994), 132.
(
'The mostcomprehensiveistoriesf modern irth ontrol xamine heevolution f thepost-1873industry
o
b
t
h
c
e
o
a
A
onlyperipherally. forinstance, n otherwise rilliant ook, Linda Gordon,Womans ody, omans ight:
See,
b
W
b
B
R
SocialHistoryfBirthControln America New York,1974); David M. Kennedy, irthControln America: he
i
o
B
i
(
T
Career fMargaret anger New Haven, 1970); James eed,From rivate icetoPublicVirtue: heBirthControl
o
S
P
V
T
(
R
Movement
andAmericanocietyince 830 (New York,1978); EllenChesler, omenf Valor: argaretanger nd
S
s
1
W
o
M
S
a
i
theBirthControl ovementn America(New York,1992); Brodie, Contraception Abortionn NineteenthM
and
i
Centurymerica; onstanceChen, "TheSex Side ofLife"MaryWare ennetts ioneeringattle orBirthControl
A
C
D
P
B
f
and SexEducationNew York,1996); CaroleMcCann,Birth ontrolPolitics theUnited tates, 916-1945 (Ith(
in
C
S
1
Intended onsequences:
and
aca, 1994); and Donald T. Critchlow,
BirthControl, bortion, the ederal overnment
F
C
A
G
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
in t
437
This article xplores hesocialand economic haracterf theblackmarket irth
e
t
c
o
b
control rade o address question rucial o understanding historyf reproduct
t
a
c
t
the
o
tivecontrol, usiness, nd the law: What happenedto the national ontraceptive
b
a
c
industryftertwas declared llegal? istorians aveoften haracterized period
a
i
i
H
h
c
the
between riminalization the 1870s and Sanger's ovementf the 1910s as birth
c
in
m
o
control's leakest hapter, timewhenonlya privilegedewcould affordheserb
c
a
f
t
vicesof sympathetic
doctors r of a dwindling umber f merchants ho would
o
n
o
w
discreetly
ignore helaw forthe right rice.Sangerherself as amongthefirst o
t
p
w
t
voicethisinterpretation,
insistinghatan almost ear-longearch orcontraceptive
t
y
s
f
information 1913 yielded no information orereliable hanthatexchanged y
in
"
m
t
b
anyback-fenceossips n anysmalltown."Sanger's laimhas enjoyed remarkable
i
g
c
a
shelflife.The most recentbook-length istory f fertility
h
o
f
control, orinstance,
whileoffering
important ewinsightsn thepractice f birth ontrol nd abortion
n
o
o
c
a
in thenineteenth-century
UnitedStates, oncludes hatthenew lawsof the 1870s
c
t
"overrode generation f commercialization growing ublic discourse nd
a
o
and
p
a
drovereproductive
i
control,f not totally ackunderground, leastintoa netherat
b
worldof back-fenceossip nd back-alleybortion."6
g
a
a
Yetan abundance f evidence-fromarrestnd PostOffice epartmentecords
o
a
r
D
to credit eports,radecatalogs, rialtranscripts,
r
t
t
advertisements,
m
patents, edical
literature, privateetters etween riendsnd lovers-pointsto a very ifferent
and
l
b
f
d
a
scenarioin whichlegal leniency, ntrepreneurial
e
c
savvy, nd cross-classonsumer
a
support nabledthe blackmarketn birth ontrol o thrive. uch findings ardly
e
i
c
t
S
h
pointto a hitherto nrecognizedoldenage of safeor effective control. ven
u
g
E
birth
before irth ontrol ecamea crime, opularmethods uchas douching ereneib
c
w
b
p
s
ther eliable orentirely especiallyymodern tandards.heydo, however,all
r
n
safe,
c
b
s
T
into questionassumptionsf draconian nforcement birth ontrol estrictions
o
e
of
c
r
and tellus new things bout law,commerce,nd everydayexualpractice n the
a
s
a
i
turn-of-the-century States.
United
The ability f entrepreneurs as Chase to violatethe law withimpunity
o
such
underscores needto examine riminal irth ontrol otonlyas a statutory
the
event
b
c
n
c
butalsoas a dynamic rocess hapedbymanufacturers,
p
and
s
retailers,
consumers, the
in Modern merica New York,1999). On the birthcontrol usiness n relation o the developmentnd mass
A
(
b
i
t
a
marketingf oral contraceptives, Bernard sbell,ThePill: A Biographyf theDrug thatChanged heWorld
o
see
A
o
t
(New York,1995), 156-69; Elizabeth iegelWatkins, n thePill:A SocialHistoryf Oral Contraceptives,
S
O
o
19501970 (Baltimore, 998), 21-27, 48, 51; and Lara Marks,Sexual Chemistry: Internationalistory f thePill
1
An
H
o
(New Haven,forthcoming).
6 Margaret anger, argaret anger: n Autobiography
S
M
S
A
(New York,1938), 93-95; Brodie,Contraception
and
Abortionn Nineteenth-Century
i
America, 88. BrodieacknowledgeshatSanger's emarks ereexaggeratedut
2
t
r
w
b
accepts heir asicpremise. ee also Carl N. Degler, t Odds:Womennd the amilynAmericarom he evolution
t
b
S
A
a
F
i
f
tR
to thePresentNew York,1980), 222; Shirley reen,The Curious istory f Contraception
(
G
H
o
(London, 1971), 15;
Carol Flora Brooks,"The EarlyHistoryof the Anti-Contraceptive
Laws in Massachusettsnd Connecticut,"
a
American uarterly, (Spring1966), 22; Kathleen ndres, 'Strictly onfidential': irth-Controldvertising
Q
18
E
"
C
B
A
in
a Nineteenth-Century Journalismuarterly, (Winter 986), 748-51; and C. ThomasDienes,Law,PolCity,"
Q
63
1
itics, nd BirthControlUrbana,1972), 50-73. Two notableexceptions, either f whichexplores hesocialor
a
(
n
o
t
economicimpactof criminalization depth,are: MichaelGrossberg, overning Hearth: aw and theFamily
in
G
the
L
in Nineteenth-Century
AmericaChapel Hill, 1985), 175-95; and JohnD'Emilio and EstelleB. Freedman,nti(
I
mate atters: HistoryfSexuality AmericaNew York,1988).
A
M
o
in
(
438
The JournalfAmerican istory
o
H
September000
2
justicesystem. aralleling mericans' esponse o otherforms f regulated ice,a
P
A
r
t
o
v
zone of tolerance as createdin whichbirthcontrol as routinely ade, sold,
w
w
m
bought, nd used.Not openly ndorsed, ontraceptiveserenonethelessccepted.
a
e
c
w
a
Court decisions anctioned exualand commercial isobedience,dumbratingn
s
s
a
d
a
impliedright o personal nd entrepreneurial
t
a
o
privacy hatsuperseded he right f
t
t
thefederal overnment interfere thebedrooms nd businessesf thenation.7
to
in
o
g
a
Although mericansefined helawin their wnterms,omewereaffectedyits
A
d
t
o
s
b
I
presence orethanothers.n theory,
m
antiobscenity
legislationppliedto all purveya
orsof contraceptives,
h
including stablishedubber nd pharmaceuticalousesthat
e
r
a
manufactured distributed
and
items ommonly sed forbirth ontrol. n practice,
c
u
c
I
smaller layers,uchas SarahChase,weremorelikely o be investigated.
s
p
t
Investigatorsviewedcontraceptive
entrepreneurs-often
immigrants,omen,and Jewsw
notonly s businesspeople
a
breakinghelaw,butas a criminallass. he legalvulnerat
c
T
o
h
bility f small roprietors
p
illuminatesowperceptions criminality commercial
of
and
w
at
It
legitimacy ereconstructed theturn f thecentury. also suggestsheneed to
o
t
b
incorporateoththeillicit nd thesmallintoourunderstanding theevolution f
a
of
o
federal usiness egulation.8
b
r
The history f thebirth ontrol usiness n theage of Comstock roadens ur
o
c
b
i
b
o
of
understanding everydayontraceptive
a
c
realities. easuring ttitudesoward nd
M
a
t
use of contraceptivesinherently
is
f
c
difficult,
especially oran erawhenbirth ontrol
was a crime, ewpeoplerecordedheir ontraceptive
f
t
c
encounters, medical, arand
m
a
keting, nd opinionsurveys f national ractices id not exist.9 tudying ootleg
o
p
d
S
b
birthcontrol elpsfillin thesegaps,connecting ommerce nd consumptiono
h
c
t
a
birthcontrolas it was experiencedfrom he bottomup," revealing resilient,
"
t
a
a
robust, nd segregated
industryhataccommodated broadspectrum f budgets
t
a
o
and inclinations.ongbefore argaretanger escued erfellow itizens rom onL
M
S
f
r
h
c
c
traceptive
ignorance, mericansf all backgroundsad turned o themarket,eekA
o
h
t
s
ingcontrol vertheir ertility theirives.
o
f
and
l
7Much has beenwrittenboutantiobscenity easures nd thejudicialrulings hatcurbedand finallytruck
a
m
a
t
s
themdown,butlittle bouttheeverydayvasionand enforcement contraceptive
a
e
of
laws.
8 For the firstnterpretation Progressiveusinessregulationss serving he interest f big business, ee
i
of
b
a
t
o
s
GabrielKolko, The Triumphf Conservatism: Reinterpretation merican istory,900-1916 (New York,
o
A
of A
H
1
1963). For a morerecent xplorationf theregulatory to corporate apitalism,ee GeraldBerk, lternative
e
o
road
c
s
A
Tracks: he Constitution Americanndustrial rder,1865-1916 (Baltimore,1994). See also CharlesW
T
of
I
O
McCurdy, The KnightSugarDecision of 1895 and theModernization f American orporation aw, 1869"
o
C
L
1903," Business istory eview, 3 (Autumn1979), 304-42. On smalland medium-sized usinesses,ee Philip
H
R
5
b
s
Scranton, ndless ovelty:pecialtyroduction
E
N
S
P
andAmerican
Industrialization,
1865-1925 (Princeton,997); and
1
WendyGamber,TheFemaleEconomy: heMillinerynd Dressmakingrades, 860-1930 (Urbana,1997). On
T
a
T
1
femaleentrepreneurship, WendyGamber,"A GenderedEnterprise: lacingNineteenth-Century
see
BusinessP
women in History," usiness istory eview, 2 (Summer1998), 188-218; KathyPeiss,"Vital Industry nd
B
H
R
7
a
Women's entures: onceptualizing enderin Twentieth-Century
V
C
G
BusinessHistory,"bid.,219-41; KatinaL.
i
Manko, "Now You Are in Business orYourself: he Independent ontractorsf the California erfume omf
T
o
C
C
P
pany,1886-1938," Business nd Economic istory,6 (Fall 1997), 5-26; RickieSolinger, heAbortionist:
a
H
2
T
A
Woman gainst heLaw (New York,1994); and LucyEldersveld urphy, Business adies:Midwestern omen
t
a
M
"
L
W
and Enterprise,850-1880,"Journalof omen'sistory, (Spring1991), 65-89.
1
H
3
W
9 The exception ortheVictorian ra is a survey y Dr. Clelia Duel Mosherthat nvestigated marital elaf
e
b
i
the
r
tionsand sexualhabits,between1892 and 1920, of 45 women,a majority f whom werecollege-educated,
o
middle-class, white.See James ahood and Kristine enburg, heMosher urvey:exualAttitudesfFortyand
M
W
T
S
S
o
W
(
fiveVictorian omenNew York,1980).
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
in t
439
The Law
At its inception, he ComstockLaw was antibusinessegislation.nvokingits
t
l
I
authority regulatenterstate
to
i
commercend theUnitedStates ostalsystem, ona
p
C
gress nacted heantiobscenity
e
t
statuteo endthe"nefarious diabolical raffic"
t
and
t
in
"vileand immoral oods"that urity eformers
g
p
r
believed romotedexual icentiousp
s
l
ness.Passedin theearly oursof March2, 1873, thestatute orbade heimportah
f
t
tionordissemination any"book, amphlets,
of
p
paper, riting,
w
advertisement,
circular,
print, icture,rawing, other epresentation, orimage n orofpaper rother
p
d
or
r
figure,
o
o
or
or
a
o
o
material, anycase,instrument,other rticlefan immoral ature, ranydrugor
n
10
o
o
w
ft
medicine, r anyarticle hateveror hepreventionf conception."
I
It was notthefirstimeobscenity ad beenmadea crime. n 1842 Congress ad
t
h
h
t
passed withoutexplanation tariff ct authorizing ustomsofficials o seize
a
a
c
"obscene r immoral"mported rintsnd picturesbutnotprinted atter). ythe
o
i
p
a
(
m
B
1860sa lively omestic rade n cheapnovels, amphlets,nd photographsevealed
d
t
i
p
a
r
notonlythat hetariffcthad failed utalso that ative, otforeign,andswereto
t
a
b
n
n
h
blame.In 1865 Congress pproved billintroducedySen.Jacob ollamer fVera
o
a
b
C
mont,postmastereneral uring heTaylor dministration, madethemailing
g
d
t
a
that
.
of any"obscene ook,pamphlet, icture, rint, r other ublication . . [of]vulgar
o
b
p
p
p
In
the
and indecent haracter" misdemeanor. 1872 Congress trengthened 1865
c
a
s
provisions,
addingenvelopes nd postcardso itslistof "suspicious"rticles.11
a
t
a
o
t
The Comstock aw thuscontinued policy f federal bscenityegulationhat
L
a
o
r
i
by 1873 was morethanthirty ears ld. Eliminating
y
o
loopholes n the 1872 law,it
O
a
expandedits scope, codifyingn extraordinarily list of "obscenities." milong
t
T
t
t
nously,ontraceptivesadethelistforthefirstime. he decision o include hem
c
m
f
B
C
was Comstock's. ornin 1844, the former rygoods salesman rom onnecticut
d
in
A
had impressedocialpurity eformers theNew York oungMen'sChristian ssos
r
Y
in the 1860s withhis one-man rusade o eradicateexualvice.An
ciation(YMcA)
c
t
s
o
C
t
enthusiast olded ythetraditionf evangelicaleform,omstock ooksinseriously,
m
b
r
or
t
t
fearinghatexposure o vice-be it pornography,
prostitution, contraceptives12
to
d
wouldlead inevitably moraldecay, hysical uin, nd spiritual amnation.
a
p
r
b
c
a
Comstock dentifiedirth ontrol s an increasingly
i
a
conspicuous nd profitable
w
i
"
businessoperated, n part,by small-scale smutpeddlers" ho sold diaphragms
c
o
alongwithdildos,photographsf nakedwomen,and impotence ures.Although
since
s
birth ontrol ad beenusedbyAmericansincecolonialtimes, evelopments
c
h
d
1830s had enhanced its commercialvisibility. ulcanization echnology
V
the
t
0ComstockAct, h. 258, 17 Stat.598 (1873).
c
11 ongressional
4
t
Globe, 2 Cong.,
C
Globe, 8 Cong., 2 sess.,Feb. 8, 1865, p. 661; AppendixotheCongressional
3
C
WO
(New York,1930), 210; James . N. Paul and
2 sess., une8, 1872, p. 790; MaryWareDennett, ho's bscene?
J
O
in
MurrayL. Schwartz, ederalCensorship: bscenity theMail (New York,1961), 12, 17; DorothyGarfield
F
I
M
(Athens, a., 1977), 55; D'Emilio and Freedman,ntimate atG
Fowler, nmailable: ongress thePostOffice
U
C
and
ters, 59.
1
12 HeywoodBrounand Margaret eech, nthonyomstock:oundsmanfthe ord(New York, 927), 46-47;
L
o
1
L
A
C
R
C
FighterNew York,1913); Nicola
(
A
Bennett, nthony omstock;harlesGallaudetTrumbull, nthony omstock,
A
C
C
A
(
1
C
and
R
in
Beisel, mperiled
I
Innocents:nthonyomstock Family eproduction Victorian mericaPrinceton, 997).
A
440
o
The JournalfAmerican istory
H
2
September000
i
of
the
m
G
invented yCharles oodyearn 1839 permitted domestic anufacture conb
G
intrauterine
a
s
pessaries,nd douching yringes; ooddoms,malecaps,diaphragms,
and
h
m
bags"
self-acting
syringes,
pessaries, "gonorrhea as examples
year imself entioned
in
and
of themanyusesof his discovery his 1853 book, Gum-Elastic Its Varieties.
i
in
a
t
Concomitantmprovements printingechnologynd reductionsn postalrates
i
t
in
to
r
w
i
enabled ontraceptive
entrepreneursadvertiseheir ubber ares nexpensively
c
a
h
c
newspapers,roadsides, ome medicalmanuals, nd private ardsplacedstrategib
in
E
a
a
o
d
cally n streetorners, railwaynd steamshipepots, nd in hotellobbies. stabc
b
a
a
p
a
lishedfirms nd respected hysiciansnd druggistslso distributedirthcontrol
a
w
B
f
devices. ut whatComstock nd his cronies oundso threateningas thepromiin
a
visiblecomnenceof contraceptives thevice trade-a robust nd increasingly
a
f
t
that
mercein illicitproducts nd pleasures, romprostitutiono pornography,
s
s
t
of
seemedto encourage exuallicense y freeingexfrom heconstraints marriage
b
13
and childbearing.
a
o
C
w
Withthefinancialnd political acking f hisYMCA patrons, omstock entto
b
i
f
b
s
Washingtonn December1872 to marshal upport ora new federal ill he had
o
t
d
t
draftedo clampdownon theescalatingbscenitiesrade. ongressionalebateon
C
themeasure asbrief. o no availdid Rep. MichaelKerr f Indianawarnthat bill
w
T
o
a
i
r
powers ughtnot to be endorsedn "suchhot
o
proposinguchsweeping egulatory
s
b
t
C
p
haste."In a rushof legislation,he Forty-secondongress assedComstock's ill
t
u
t
along withsome 260 others, he precisedetailsof whichremained nknown o
T
i
o
m
C
s
a
many embers. hreedayslater tappointed omstock pecial gent f theUnited
w
t
P
b
rightsheoffice estowed.14
States ostOffice, ithall of theenforcement
o
t
n
Baskingin victory,he country's ewlyordainedvigilante f vice missedthe
i
and
warning igns.Findingpoliticalenthusiasmn indifference studiedendorses
Comstock eft ashingtononvinced f thereality
lW
c
o
mentin last-minute
scurrying,
of a broadpolitical onsensus upporting is viewson vice. He was wrong.Like
c
h
s
t
a
of
q
Kerr,manyotherAmericans uestioned he advisabilitynd constitutionality
Others imply efusedo consider oninterference.
r
t
c
suchfar-reaching
s
congressional
in
a
T
C
h
w
traception anyform crime. he "sins" omstock ad conflated ouldbe disagm
a
gregated fter1873 and judged,one by one, whereit mattered ost-in the
c
and
marketplace in thecourtofAmericans'onscience.
Enforcement
of
e
t
Fromthebeginning,nforcers thenewlaw facedmanyobstacles,ncluding he
i
T
a
scope of the regulations nd inadequatefunding. he ComstockLaw banned
II CharlesGoodyear, um-Elastic Its Varieties,ith Detailed ccount fItsApplications Uses nd the
G
and
A
wa
and
a
o
o
DiscoveryfVulcanization
o
(New Haven, 1853), 170, 172-74. On thevisibilityf thecontraceptive
trade, ee,for
s
A
a
E
t
example, zraHeywood,Uncivil iherty:n Essay oShowthe njusticend ImpolicyfRuling oman ithout er
L
I
o
W
W
H
"
U
ConsentPrinceton, 872), 21; ElyVan de Warker,The Criminal se of Proprietary Advertised ostrums,"
(
1
or
N
New York edicalJournal,7 (Jan.1873), 23; NicholasFranceCooke, Satan in Society: ya PhysicianCincinM
1
B
(
i
i
nati,1882), 24, 150. Published n 1882, Cooke's book was writtenn 1870. See also D'Emilio and Freedman,
in
Intimate atters, 58; and Brodie,Contraception
M
1
andAbortion Nineteenth-Century
America, 91-92.
1
14 egisterfPostOfficenspectors, 16,Postal nspectionervice ecords; ennett, nthonyomstock,
box
o
S
I
I
R
B
A
C
1017.
R
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
in t
441
the istribution ontraceptives lsodozens fotherbscenities, lewd hod
ofc
but
a
o
o
from p
tographs pornographic
to
trinkets.
Under he aw, he olicingfeach asaccorded
tl tp
o
w
equalstatus. ecause heantiobscenity
t
B
provisionsere mbedded a postal tatwe
in
s
ute,theherculean of enforcing became heresponsibility ostoffice
task
them
t
of p
inspectors, called pecial gents. y 1873their uty oster,hichncludedhe
also
s
a
B
dr
w
i
t
enforcementpostal awsand regulations
of
l
the
governing interstate
transport
of
goods ycommonarrier,asfull. ith heComstockaw, tswelledurther.
b
c
w
Wt
Li
f
Had
o
Congressnsistedn thehiring f dozensof additionalgents,t might ave
i
o
a
i
h
increased chances f successfully
the
o
enforcing law.It did not.Between 872
the
1
4
and 1873thepostmaster
h
the
generalired newinspectors,
n
increasing total umberfrom 9 to a still-paltry Fewin numberndstrappedor ime,nspectors
ft
5
63.
a
i
coulddo only o much. f the410 arrests adebyall postofficegentsn the
s
O
m
i
a
United tates etween ay1, 1875, ndApril 0, 1876, nly 7 were or iolations
S
b
M
a
fv
3
o2
of theComstock aw.15
L
The difficultyeliminating birthontrolrade asexacerbated thebalof
the
c
t
w
by
anceoffederal state egulatory Although
and
ba
r
power.
abortionadlong een math
16
ter fstate egulation, control asdifferent.heComstockawwasthe irst
birth
o
w
T
r
L
f
statutehat xplicitly
te
commerce.
outlawedontraceptive
c
Followingongress's
C
lead,
states
s
m
the
twenty-four enactedo-called ini-Comstock prohibiting dissemilaws
nation radvertisement ontraceptives stateines. tate tatutesidnot
o
of c
within l
S
d
s
seek oshiftower romhe ederalovernment he tateso much stheyought
t
f tf
tot s
s
p
a
g
s
to affirm congressional
the
classificationcontraceptives bscene. ecause he
of
as o
B
t
birthontrolusinessependedn interstate
c
o
S
P
b
commerce theUnited tates ost
and
d
its
authorities recognized accepted.ellingly,
was
and
Office, regulation federal
by
T
themajority personsrrested birth ontrolrimesn thepost-1873 nited
for
i
of
a
c
c
U
wi
States erendicted, orsentenced federal
in
fb
federal
law.'7
courts or reaking
tried,
15 Embezzling etters nd mail and post office obberies ccounted or259 arrests; mbezzling overnment
e
g
l
a
r
a
f
T
S
funds, 1; usingthemailforfraudulenturposes, 8; other ffenses,5. See P. H. Woodward, heSecret ervice
1
p
1
o
9
A
o
of thePost-Office
Department
(Columbus,Oh., 1886), 20. U.S. Post OfficeDepartment, nnualReport f the
1
Postmaster-GeneralheUnited tates ortheFiscalYear ndedJune 0, 1873 (Washington,873), xxii.See also
oft
S
f
E
3
Trumbull, nthony omstock,88; and MaryWare Dennett,BirthControl aws: Shall WeKeep Them,Change
A
C
1
L
Them, rAbolish hem New York,1926), 30.
o
T
(
a
a
t
16By 1880 in every tatecriminal bortion aws permitted edically ecessarybortions,n exemption hat
s
a
l
m
n
LeslieJ. Reaganfinds,
made determinations wrongdoing othfrequently
of
b
contested nd a stateresponsibility.
a
t
w
even amongmedicalprofessionals,idespread se and toleration f abortion, hichshe referso as an "open
w
u
o
i
M
a
secret" n 1860-1940. LeslieJ. Reagan,When bortion asa Crime:Women, edicine, nd Law in theUnited
A
W
b
States, 867-1973 (Berkeley, 997), 19-45, 62-73. On the growing istinction etweenabortionand birth
1
1
d
i
o
controln thelatenineteenthentury, Grossberg, overning Hearth, 93-95. On theregulationf aborc
see
G
the
1
a
in
T
o
tionin colonialand antebellum merica, ee James . Mohr,Abortion America: he Origins nd Evolution f
A
s
C
t
a
National olicy, 800-1900 (New York,1978); CorneliaHughesDayton,"Taking heTrade:Abortion nd GenP
1
i
a
New
48
derRelationsn an Eighteenth-Century England illage,"William nd MaryQuarterly, (Jan.1991), 19V
i
a
a
T
49; and Susan E. Klepp,"Lost,Hidden,Obstructed,nd Repressed: ontraceptivend Abortive echnologyn
C
i
E
f
t
theEarly elawareValley,"n Early merican echnology:
D
A
T
Makingand Doing Thingsrom heColonial ra to 1850,
i
and
M
ed. Judith cGaw (Chapel Hill, 1994), 68-113. See also Brodie, Contraception Abortionn NineteenthCenturyAmerica,
254-88.
17 Grossberg, overning Hearth, 87-93; Dennett, irth ontrol aws,268-71; Brooks, Early istory f
C
"
H
o
G
the
1
B
L
A
W
theAnti-Contraceptive in Massachusettsnd Connecticut"; eagan,When bortion asa Crime;H. S.
Laws
a
R
a
Pomeroy, heEthics f Marriage, lso withan Appendix howing heLaws of Most of theStates nd Territories
T
o
A
S
t
a
4
Regardingertain orms f Crime(New York,1888), 185-97; Dienes,Law, Politics,nd BirthControl,2-47.
C
F
o
442
TheJournal Americanistory
of
H
2000
September
t
a
s
m
Designatinghecontraceptive
industryfederalssue, tate egislatures aderegulai
l
tionof ita federal urden.
b
o
w
The most successfulpprehenderf birthcontrol"criminals" as Comstock
a
himself. is zeal, ridiculed n the press,coupledwithhis post office olleagues'
H
i
c
in
of Y
chronicverwork,
ensuredhat heNYSSV, an offshoot the MCA incorporated
tt
o
t
r
C
March 1873, performedhelion'sshareof obscenity olicing. omstock eceived
p
o
his authorityrom ongress nd the 1875 criminal ode of thestate f New York,
f
C
a
c
N
t
s
laws.
whichdeputized YSSV agents o enforcetate nd federal bscenity 18 Because
a
o
he and other gents ainstakingly
a
p
cataloged etails f eacharrest,
d
o
including harges
c
filed,the outcomesof each legal proceeding, nd arrestees' usinessaddresses,
a
b
w
of
and
aliases, nventories, occupations, e havea remarkableepository informai
r
tion about contraceptive
in
entrepreneurship criminality the late-nineteenthand
o
a
century nitedStates.Although littleoverhalf (54 percent) f thosearrested
U
resided n the stateof New York,it would be a mistake o assumethatthisis a
i
t
N
N
who
purely ew York tory.YSSV agents ypicallyursued ntrepreneurs advertised
s
t
p
e
in New York's ensationalist working-class
s
and
tabloids, mediumthatprivileged
a
in
w
localmerchants.ut contraceptive
B
t
entrepreneurs,
especiallyhose ho advertised
newspapers,epended n mail-orderommercend usedthepostalsystemo trand
o
c
a
t
scend obstacles eepingdistant nd ruralcustomers rombuyingbirthcontrol.
k
a
f
Indeed,NYSSV arrestees
included ozensof contraceptive
d
purveyors ho advertised
w
in New Yorkpapers utwhosemail-orderutfits erebasedin states s farawayas
w
b
o
a
Iowa and Tennessee.n addition, ntiltheadoptionof latexand mass-production
I
u
in
technologies the 1930s,birth ontrol anufactureas never o expensiver difc
m
w
s
o
ficult hatordinary eoplecould not makecontraceptives smallshopsor in the
t
in
p
home.Survivingecords,ncluding ewspaperdvertisements,
r
i
n
a
privateetters,ourt
l
c
a
C
ftN
"troubles"
cases, nd patents,upport omstock's ear hat ew York's ontraceptive
s
c
t
paralleledhoseof thenation.'9
A strikingeaturef theNYSSV recordss theinfrequency contraception-related
o
f
i
of
the
arrests. otwithstanding society's roaddiscretionary
b
i
d
N
powers,ts chief's evotion,and the existence f a vibrant ootlegmarket, YSSV agents(including he
o
b
N
t
arrestednly105 menand womenbetween arch1873
M
indefatigable
Comstock),
o
and March1898 forthecrime f birth ontrol, ewer han5 peryear.20ne explao
f
t
O
c
Of 105 persons rrestedorbirth ontrol rimes rom 873 to 1898 bytheNew YorkSociety ortheSuppression
a
f
c
c
f
1
f
of Vice (NYSsv) agents, ll but 12 wereprosecutedn federal ourts. ee containers-3, Records f theNew York
a
i
1
c
S
o
Society ortheSuppressionf Vice.
f
o
N
18Sixth nnualReport fthe ew York ociety the uppression Vice(New York, 880), 27-28; Registerf
A
o
o
S
for S
of
1
PostOffice nspectors,ostalInspection ervice ecords; ennett, irth ontrol aws,32.
I
P
S
R
D
B
C
L
19 he breakdownf arrestsecordedn theNYssv arrestedgers etween 873 and 1898 is: New York57; IlliT
i
o
r
l
b
1
nois 12; Massachusetts; Pennsylvania; New Jersey; Connecticut ; Indiana3; Ohio 2; New Hampshire ;
9
7
6
3
2
Michigan1; Kentucky ; Tennessee ; Iowa 1. Containers -3, Records f theNew YorkSociety ortheSuppres1
1
1
o
f
sion of Vice. Comstockdependedon postalagentsto enforce bscenityawswhereNYSSV agentscould not be
o
l
in
present, articularly theWestand South.On contraceptive
p
technology, forexample, . J.B. Buckingham,
see,
T
"The Tradein Questionable ubberGoods,"India Rubber orld, arch15, 1892,p. 164; and VernL. Bullough,
R
W
M
"ABrief ote on Rubber echnologynd Contraception:he Diaphragm nd theCondom,"Technology CulN
T
a
T
a
and
ture, 2 (Jan.1981), 104-11.
2
20 The numberncludes hose hoseprimaryffense as making r selling irth ontrol s wellas those hose
t
o
b
a
i
w
o
w
c
w
inventory
included ontraceptives,
c
evidence hatwouldjustifyn additional riminal harge.
t
a
c
c
A
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship Gilded ge
inthe
443
agents'ttention time.
a
and
and
o
claiming
nation asthevariety volume foffenses
w
of
I
the
was
tunnel ision.gnoring intricacies the
v
Butequallyignificant inspectors'
s
o
c
sellers-those
agents
a
g
contraceptive
industry, pursuedselect roup fbirthontrol
whose ctivitiesost esembled stereotypes mut eddling-buteft ther,
their
p
lo
a
mr
ofs
of
u
in
a
equallymportant,
i
participantsthetrade lone.Suchelitist nderstandings
sexism,ndclassism,
a
b
u
o
sexual riminality,
c
spawned ya virulentnion f nativism,
i
were otnew. twasthesocial urity ovement's
n
I
successn linkingontraceptives
c
p
m
C
t
tosexualicentiousness,
brothels, bars hat adpromptedomstockoclassify
and
th
l
i
i
contrap
contraceptives bscenen thefirstlace.Oncethelawwent ntoeffect,
as o
m
p
p
and
c
ceptivesemained toa street saloon ulturerofitingenandwomen rer
tied
"
"
"J
m
a
sumed o be devoid f scruples, orals,ndclass: bad"men, sly" ews,moralt
o
of
c
compartmentalization
P
cancer-planters,""oldshevillians."urityrusaders'
and
t
inspectorsview he
to
the orldnto eparate
spheresfviceandvirtuencouraged
o
e
w
is
adverw
v
a
q
elimination therubberendorsnd "infideluacks" hoconspicuously
of
i
of
tised heir aresn tabloidsndcirculars key o thesuppression theindustry.
tw
a
as
t
"ghoulsndvampires."y
a
B
v
were
as
Suchentrepreneurs disparaged soulless ermin,
w
o
t
a
wi
contrast,
patronsf theNYSSV whosoughtheirrrest ere,n Comstock'sords,
"honest, rave en.21
b
m"
than
m
n
Ironically,
Comstock eedhavelookedno further his "honest en"to
i
The
was
t
S
a
detect crimen progress. perpetrator noneother han amuel olgate,
C
heir
a
a
president the YSSVandmillionaire ofColgatendCompany,NewJerseyof N
he
U
S
d
rights
based oapfirm. olgate eld xclusivenited tates istribution toVaseline
s
C
the
a
launchedn aggressive
andin themid-1870s
campaign
advertising substance's
of
w
promotional
value.
therapeutic The cornerstonehisinitiativeasa twelve-page
benefits.
of
e
that
a
contraceptive
pamphlet included doctor'sndorsementVaseline's
observed
is b
t
t
readershat prevention etterhan ure," hepractitioner
t"
c
Reminding
o
acid
wft
that vaseline,
spermag
"
charged ith our ofive rainsfsalicylic willdestroy
"22
o
t
w
tozoa, ithout
injuryotheuterusrvagina.
that
c
as p
of
Colgate's ypocrisy-serving resident an organization opposed onh
b
from
the
while
s
traceptives profiting theirale-exemplified class iasundergirding
advoThe
and
enforcement anditdidnotgo unnoticed. anarchist free-love
efforts,
v
b
four
w
1
cate zraHeywood, howasarrested times etween878and1890for iolatE
as a
identified
enforcement,
NYSSv-style, classissue.
ingtheobscenity
laws,correctly
h
in
w
h
o
people adto "lieand
There asno justice, e argued, a world here rdinary
w
ms a
t
a
b
l td i
cheatike he evilnorderoget nhonestiving"utprivilegeden uch s Coll
Nor
v
fp
and
conception." wasColgate
gate ot rich aking sellingaselineor reventing
g" m
21Comstockto S. Murphy, ec. 11, 1905, box 17, Medical Interests, ffice f Messrs.Rockefeller,ockeR
o
O
D
o
1
N
A
T
C
feller amily ollection(Rockefellerrchives, arrytown,.Y.); containers -3, Records f theNew YorkSociF
a
a
F
E
o
C
o
etyfortheSuppression f Vice; Anthony omstock, rauds xposed; r,How thePeople reDeceived nd Robbed,
f
S
o
A
1
(1880; Montclair, 969), 5, 308, 434; TheSecond nnualReport f theNew York ocietyor
and Youth orrupted
C
of
S
the uppression Vice(New York,1876), 11, 14.
(
t
A
i
p
22The promotional amphlet s quoted in D. M. Bennett, n Open Letter o Samuel Colgate New York,
R
B
B
o
in
1879), 8-9. EdwardB. Foote,TheRadicalRemedy SocialScience; r,Borning etter abiesthroughegulating
C
A
E
W
(New York,1886), 90; EdwinC. Walker, hoIs the nemy: nthonyomConception
by
Reproduction Controlling
stock rYou? New York,1903), 16.
o
(
444
of
TheJournal Americanistory
H
September
2000
w
theonlyentrepreneur
whosecrimes ereconveniently
ignored. eywoodcharged
H
w
thatthe contraceptive
tradewas teeming ith"'pure' Shylocks who] make and
[
vendtonsof syringeso preventonception, etare unmolestedbecause hey re]
t
c
y
[
t
a
w
f
m
o
C
well-belovedellow embersf Brooklyn hurches ithComstock and]Colgate!"
[
o
ft
and
Freethinkers
dubbedtheNYSSV the"Society or heManufacture Suppressionf
Vice"and boycotted olgate's roducts or ears.23
fy
C
p
T
WhiletheNYSSV spared olgate,Morris lattstine as arrested.he twenty-sixG
w
C
P
a
a
c
year-old olish ew, escribed y Comstock s "shrewdnd lazy," ought ondoms
Jd
b
b
f
S
R
M
and diaphragmsrom heMilwaukee-basedtuart ubberCompany. ost of his
t
f
b
a
c
stock as reservedorresale o outlyingetailers,utGlattstinelso sold birth onw
t
r
troldirectlyo consumerst his druggist's
t
a
sundries- rubber oods storeat 77
and
g
EastBroadwayn New York ity. n March1878 Comstock aida visit nd arrested
i
C
I
p
a
Glattstine,eizinghis inventory-a damning"6 womb veils and 15 caps and
s
i
C
t
th
capotes"-forevidence. omstock eportedo hissuperiorn thepostofficehat e
r
had "discovered here[Glattstine his clerk] ettheir tock, f a manufacturer
w
and
g
s
o
in theWest."Buthe left heStuart ubber ompany lone.24
t
a
R
C
The legalhandling f Colgate, lattstine, theStuart ubber ompany lluR
o
G
and
C
i
A
minates heselectivenforcement lawsagainst ontraceptives.majorityf busit
e
of
o
c
ft
o
w
nesspeoplerrestedor hecrime f birth ontrol erepetty roprietors.anywere
a
c
p
M
F
immigrants,omen,orJews. ew possessed formal ducation. enied thecredit
w
a
e
D
and socialor educational redentialseededto claimprofessionalespectability
c
n
or
r
ascendthefinancialadder, hey eredrawnto a tradewhoseillicit haracternd
w
c
a
l
t
low capitalrequirements ade it welcoming o ordinary eople.After onths f
t
m
m
o
p
a
t
joblessnessnd nights assedon parkbenches, heGerman ewishmmigrantulius
p
J
i
J
Schmid eganselling kincondoms adeoutof freshly
s
b
m
slaughtered
sheepintestines
in the late 1880s, when he was in his earlytwenties. oseph ackrach, Jewish
J
B
a
w
a
o
immigrant itha "common ducation,"upported familyf ninemaking ubber
e
s
r
wombveils, ondoms, alecaps,and ticklers hisBrooklyn esidence.25
in
m
r
c
Becausewe cannotenumerate he firms hatparticipated the contraceptive
t
t
in
w
trade, e cannotbe certain f thestatistical
o
extent f enforcement No census
o
bias.
or eveninformal
inventory bootleg irth ontrol irmsxists. hatwe can sayis
of
b
c
f
e
W
thatestablishedompaniesthatmade, distributed, advertised ontraceptives
and
c
c
231Bennett, Letter oSamuelColgate, ; Brounand Leech,Anthony omstock,89; Anthony omstock,
Open
t
9
1
C
C
TrapsortheYoung,d. Robert remner1883; Cambridge, ass., 1967), 148.
f
e
B
(
M
24 Credit eport or orris lattstine, ew York, ol. 257, p. 3342 (entries or an.29, Aug. 1, 1881), R. G.
fM
r
N
v
G
fJ
Dun and CompanyCollection(BakerLibrary, arvardBusinessSchool, Boston,Mass.); "Reportof Persons
H
Arrested . . 1878"; Comstockto Parker, arch 21, 1878, box 27, PostalInspection erviceRecords;Brodie,
.
M
S
Contraception
andAbortionn Nineteenth-Century
i
i
America, 34. The company entunnamed n Comstock'set2
w
l
terto Parker,lthough omstock's otesin theNYSSV 1878 arrest ecordndicate hathe knewthenamewhenhe
a
C
n
r
i
t
wrote heletter.
t
25 "Report f Persons rrested nder he uspices f theNew York ociety or heSuppressionf Vice for he
o
A
U
tA
o
ft
t
S
o
Year 1885," container , Recordsof the New YorkSocietyforthe Suppression f Vice; "Reportof Persons
2
o
Arrested ndertheAuspices f theNew YorkSociety ortheSuppressionfVice for heYear1889," ibid.;ManuU
o
f
o
t
script opulation chedules, numeration istrict 22, Boroughof Queens,New YorkCity, ew York, welfth
P
S
E
D
6
N
T
Censusof theUnitedStates,1900, Schmidhousehold;"The Accident f Birth," ortune, 7 (Feb. 1938), 108;
o
F
1
James . Murphy, he Condomndustry theUnited tates Jefferson,
S
T
I
in
S
(
1990), 10-12. See Andrea one,Devices
T
and Desires: omen, en,and theCommercializationContraception York, orthcoming).
W
M
of
(New
f
in t
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
Contraceptive
445
r
advertiseds "skins," redated ulcanized ubber
a
v
Aimalmembraneondoms, ypically
p
t
c
f
and latexmodelsand weretraditionally
imported rom urope.By 1890,
E
a
t
Julius
however,hecondomentrepreneur Schmidhad launched
i
i
w
b
successfulusinessn skins n New York, hichbythe
a
1930s wouldmaketheimmigrantmillionaire.
cC
C
M
Inc.,
janssen-Ortho Toronto,anada.
Courtesyistory/ ontraceptionuseum,
H
werenotprosecuted. atalogscirculated y B. F. Goodrich, oodyear, ears,RoeS
b
G
C
h
and wholesale rugsupply ousessuchas McKessonand Robbinsadvertised
buck,
d
t
from
a full ineof contraceptives, intrauterine
l
devices o vaginal essaries,ouching
d
p
a
v
a
toilet ponges, nd male caps. Companies'reputationss ethical endors
syringes,
s
m
a
t
who sold exclusivelyo licenseddoctorsand druggistsnd reputable ail-order
of
l
w
houses avethem egalcover, hilethediversity their roductinehelpedcamoup
l
g
H
f
s
i
flagearticles'llicituses.The pharmaceuticalirm . K. Mulford old antiseptic
a
b
r
diphtheria
t
tampons ut also hairtonics, apeworm emedies,nd a breakthrough
U
antitoxin; .S. Rubbermade diaphragmslongwithtiresand footwear.ntriguI
a
a
o
theonlycontraceptive entioned ybrandin theMosherreport, survey f
m
b
ingly,
w
o
womenat theturnof thecentury, as a "Goodthemarital elations f forty-five
r
o
t
w
f
yearrubber ing," ornby a womanfortwoyears ollowinghebirth f herfirst
r
b
w
c
d
child.Thoughthatwomanhad no difficulty
associating irth ontrol evices ith
446
o
H
The JournalfAmerican istory
September000
2
pessaries.
and
intracervical intrauterine
Early-twentieth-century
Canada.
Janssen-OrthoToronto,
Museum,
HistoryContraception
of
Courtesy
Inc.,
t
to
c
law
did.
commerce, enforcers It wasmore omfortingdeclarehevice
dignified
as
tradeomething than usiness usual.26
other b
s
Evasion
and
b
enforcedytheFoodand DrugAdministration the
In the1930sregulations
technologies
o
and
Federal radeCommission theexpense f newmanufacturing
T
of
26See,forexample, Preliminaryearingof WilliamC. Halleck,"1919, pp. 118, 140, Transcripts Hear"
H
ingson FraudCases, 1913-1945, box 11, PostOffice epartment ecords; oodyear ubberCompany, hysiD
R
G
R
P
cian's riend nd Nurses uide(Washington,898), 1-7, 9, pamphlet, ox 2, Rubber radeCatalogues, arshaw
F
a
G
1
b
T
W
A
S
Collectionof Business mericana NationalMuseumof American istory, mithsoniannstitution, ashing(
H
I
W
ton,D.C.); B. F. GoodrichCompany, ndia Rubber ruggists'
I
D
Sundriesn.p., c. 1895), 23-24, 33-47, 74-76,
(
81-83, 87, box 1, ibid.;Perry,tearns Company, ubber oods fEvery escription
S
&
R
G
o
D
(Chicago,1890), 28-34,
I
a
a
box 8, ibid.;TyerRubberCompany, llustratedatalogue nd PriceListof Druggists'
C
Sundriesnd Miscellaneous
Rubber oods(Andover, ass., 1908), 10, 10a, 40, 40a, 88, 88a, box 8, ibid.;McKesson& Robbins, llustrated
G
M
I
Catalogue fDruggists'
o
Sundries,ancyGoods, urgicalnstruments,
F
S
I
Sponges, hamois tc.(New York,1883), 112,
C
e
132, 151, 191; Sears,Roebuck& Co., 1897 SearsRoebuck atalogue, d. FredL. Israel(New York,1968), 32;
C
e
R
R
e
Sears, oebuck& Co., 1902 Sears oebuck atalogue,d. Cleveland moryNewYork, 993),455; Sears, oebuck
C
A
(
1
R
& Co., 1908 Sears oebuck atalogue,d. Joseph .Schroeder r. Chicago,1981), 795; Louis Galamboswith etworks ane
R
e
C
J
J(
J
&
EliotSewell, Innovation: accine evelopmentMerck, harp -Dohme, ndMulford,895-1995 (New
N
of
V
D
at
S
a
1
in
andAbortion Nineteenth-Century
York,1995), 17; Brodie,Contraception
America,15; Mahood and Wenburg,
2
Mosher urvey, 47. On thesocialcamouflaging other edical evices n thisera,see RachelP. Maines,The
S
case
of
m
d
i
"t
TechnologyOrgasm: Hysteria,heVibrator, Women's
of
"
and
SexualSatisfaction
(Baltimore, 999).
1
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship Gilded ge
inthe
A
447
ss
would hut mallerlayersut,concentrating
p
o
contraceptive
production profits
and
in thehands f a few. utin theageof Comstock, entrepreneurs their
o
B
small
held
ground. heyknew hey ere eing unted. doptingtrategies concealment,
T
twb
h
A
s
of
they esisted criminalization heirrade.
r
the
oft t
Proprietors
disguisedheir roductshroughreativeelabeling.lassified
t
p
t
c
r
C
ads
in
published themedical,ubber, toilet oods ectionsf dailies ndweeklies
r
and
g
s
o
a
indicateflourishing
a
contraceptive inthepost-1873 nited tates. hehitch
trade
U
S
T
was thatcontraceptives rarelydvertised
were
a
a
openly s "preventives."
Condoms
were oldas sheaths, ale hields,apotes,ndas one 1889ad inthe eeklyrime
s
ms
a
c
c
w
t
tabloid,heNational olice azette,ead, rubberoods. . . [for] ents. 5 cents
P
r
"
g
g
2
G
each." omen'sessariesere dvertiseduterine
W
p
wa
as
ladies' hields,rotecelevators,
s
p
w
w
tors, omb upporters,
s
"marriedomen'sriends," "copper olds. ouknow.
f
and
m
Y
mo
l
h
in
$1. "27 Because any fthoseabels adfigured advertisements
publishedefore
b
theComstockawwasenacted,heir eappearance 1873signaledoconsumL
t
after
r
t
erswhat as being old.The more iscernible afterriminalization in
w
s
d
shift
c
was
advertised Birthontrolreviouslyarketed
c
m
ftp
of
uses.
p
openlyor he reventioncon-
w
ception as repackagednder egaleuphemisms- "protection,"
u
l
"security,"
"safety,"
and "reliabilityormarried omen"-that highlightedontraceptiveroperties
f
w
c
p
whileshielding etailersrom riminal rosecution.
r
f
c
p
Inventorsesortedo similar ctsof subterfuge disguise heir ctivities.atet
a
to
t
L
r
a
nineteenth- early-twentieth-century recordsrereplete ithdescriptions
a
w
and
patent
of birth ontrol evicesthat,in contrast o descriptionsromearlier ears, mit
c
d
t
f
o
y
m
o
uses.
t
explicit ention f theinventions'ontraceptive Take,for xample, hecaseof
c
e
f
theTexasinventor bertoEzell. In 1904 Ezell appliedfora patent orhis recently
U
w
to
h
designed ondom, hich e referred onlyas a "malepouch."The itemillustrated
c
a
like
on hisapplicationertainly
lookedlikea condom, nd it functioned a condom
c
w
i
as well.Accordingo Ezell,whosepatent as approved n 1906, his rubber ouch
t
p
a
t
t
wasmeant o go "on themaleorgan o catchand retain ll dischargesoming heret
c
in 1894 is equally uggestivef inveno
from." n intrauterine
A
device(IUD) patented
s
i
fb
tors' bilities o respond o consumer esire or irth ontroln thefaceof legaland
t
t
d
c
a
a
f
medicalopposition.t included streamlinedetainingeaturend a self-insertion
I
a
r
"
t
o
devicethatmadetheentireUD insertablewith heexercise f a minimum egree
I
d
f
o
of skill," reeingsers rom ependence n medical xperts.28
u
f
d
e
t
concealedthemselves
Camouflagingheir roducts, ontraceptive
p
c
entrepreneurs
t
too. Mostadoptedcommercialliases, orcingostofficenspectorso workharder
a
f
p
i
f
O
to discover heirtrueidentities. f the 105 men and womenarrested orbirth
t
u
offensesytheNYSSV between 873 and 1898,91 (87 percent) sed
control-related
1
b
t
t
aliases.Although hosealiasesdid not prevent rrest, heirwidespread doption
a
a
ta
t
a
t
indicatesheimportancentrepreneurs
e
assigned o them nd suggestshat strategy
r
of subterfuge ay help account forlow overallarrest ates.Horace Brownof
m
27NationalPoliceGazette, an.3, 1885, pp. 14-15; ibid.,Nov. 16, 1889, p. 14; ibid.,March24, 1900, pp.
J
14-15.
28
b
8
"Male pouch"by UbertoEzell,U.S. Patent, 24,634 (June26, 1906); "Pessary,"y G. J. Gladman,U.S.
b
U
Patent 44,091 (Aug.6, 1895). See also "Pessary" yT. Brauns, .S. Patent168, 711 (Oct. 11, 1875).
5
448
The JournalfAmerican istory
o
H
2
September000
a
birth
of
Usedfor variety purposes,
including control,
antiseptic
were
part
vaginaluppositories a familiar ofthe
s
over-the-counter
trade.
contraceptive
T
Photograph Andrea one.
by
as
O
N
s
Albany, ew York, oldcontraceptives"Dr. H. M. Brown"; rsonRobb,a health
in
officer WestTroy, ew York, old themunderthenameof MadameL. Colton.
N
s
a
used
e
Many birthcontrol ntrepreneurs multiple liases.When HenryHunterof
New Hampshire as arrestedn September2, 1873,he admittedo twenty-six.29
w
o
t
2
o
Retailers lso reliedon strategiesf geographic oncealment o disguisetheir
a
c
t
w
stock-in-trade.
Hiding inventory as astute:Stockon hand at the timeof arrest
29
f
o
o
Containers -3, Records f theNew YorkSociety ortheSuppressionf Vice.
1
inthe
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship Gilded ge
A
449
supplied vidence f criminalctivityorprosecutions.dwardB. Footesold birth
e
o
a
f
E
i
control n Manhattan ut sequestered is inventorylsewhere,illing rders nly
b
h
e
f
o
o
twice month. rancis ndrews perated fancy oodsand auction tore n downa
F
A
o
a
g
s
i
town lbany,utkept ive housandondoms-mostofhisstock-stashedn a room
i
A
b
ft
c
offhis bedroom. hen credit eporters
W
av
r
tracked ownGeorgeBrinckerhoff,end
f
dor of rubber ontraceptives, foundhis office arrangedorprivacy"nd its
a
c
they
"
cautious nhabitantnwillingtomakeanydisclosuref hisfinancialondition."30
i
u
"
o
c
t
Although hesmallscaleof their perationsncreased ntrepreneurs'
o
i
e
vulnerabilA
o
ity,t also helpedshieldthemfrom etection. n 1892 report n theunderground
i
d
of
T
condomtradenotedthe invisibility condomworkshops. he typical ondom
c
firm,heauthor bserved,wouldmeanlittle o theuninitiated."mall,dark, nd
t
o
"
t
S
a
almost are,itconsisted f a "moderate-size
o
ww
s
tt
b
room, ith indows o draped hat he
looks as if the proprietor as all
outsideworldmaynot peerin. . . . Everything
w
t
T
ready o pull up stakes nd hurry way." he spareenvironment
a
a
indicated helowt
o
a
technature f condomproduction, ut it probably lso reflectedntrepreneurial
b
e
D
a
w
i
savvy. iscretion nd portability ereadvantageousn a worldwhereComstockw
r
but
inspired aids ereinfrequent possible.31
t
Such strategies subterfuge
of
forcednspectorso struggleo catchbirth ontrol
i
t
c
in
o
in
a
purveyors theact.Adoptingliases ftheir wn,agents osedas consumers search
o
p
cirof blackmarket irth ontrol. heyperused suspect"ublications-commercial
b
c
T
"
p
l
a
sex-and-crime
weeklies uch as the New
culars, owbrow ailies, nd sensationalist
d
s
formal omplaints.dentifyYork-based ational oliceGazette- and investigated
N
P
c
I
a
a
ingprobable ffenders, contacted hem, urchased dvertised
o
they
t
p
items, nd made
o
w
t
c
arrestsnce thecontraband as in hand.In court, heoriginal d, follow-uporrea
e
t
a
spondence, nd thearticles urchasedupplied vidence hattheaccusedhad brop
s
kenthelaw.The detection, unt, nd capture ouldtakeweeks, venmonths.32
e
a
c
h
Tolerance
The endeavor as not onlytimeconsuming;t was oftenunrewarding.mong
w
i
A
allies
w
f
a
entrepreneurs' weretheprosecutors,
judges, nd jurors ho decidedtheir ate.
fo
f
t
The NYSSV had peoplearrestedor ffensesrom taging bscene lays o publishing
o
s
p
o
lotteries. rrests
A
a
half-dimeovels, rintingictures f nakedwomen, nd operating
n
p
p
i
control rimes eretheleastlikely o result n conviction.33ad
c
w
t
forreproductive
H
a
w
h
C
Anthony omstock ad his way,every ersonarrested ouldhavereceived fivep
the
s
fine
a
thousand-dollar and tenyears' mprisonment, maximum entence llowed
i
l
o
f
t
under ederalaw.Butthewheels f justice urned ifferently.
d
30"Report f Persons rrested ndertheAuspices f theNew York ociety or heSuppressionf Vice for he
o
o
ft
t
o
A
U
S
o
f
Year 1873," container , ibid.;"Report f Persons rrested ndertheAuspices f theNew YorkSociety orthe
1
o
A
U
o
f
vol.
Suppressionf Vice fortheYear1876," ibid.;credit eport orGeorgeBrinckerhoff, 370, p. 700 a/145 (entry
r
forOct. 6, 1883), R. G. Dun and CompanyCollection.
31 Buckingham,
"Tradein Questionable ubberGoods," 164.
R
32 omstock,Traps or theYoung, d. Bremner, x; Anthony omstock,"The Suppression f Vice," North
o
e
C
C
f
x
American eview, 35 (Nov. 1882), 486.
R
1
33 Brounand Leech, nthonyomstock,
A
C
160, 164.
450
TheJournal Americanistory
of
H
September
2000
As theydid withSarahChase, grandjurorslet manyarresteduspects o free.
s
g
More frequenthanoutrightcquittals ereindictments did not go to trial.
t
w
that
a
a
b
Fully38 percent40 of 105) of theindividualsrrested y NYSSV agents etween
(
b
forbirth ontrol rimes erenot convicted. ven thoseconvicted
c
c
w
E
1873 and 1898
susrarely acedstiff entences. udges ave4 of the 65 convicted ntrepreneurs
f
s
J
g
e
pendedsentences nd finedand released nother 5. Only 16 of the 65 persons
a
a
4
o
w
P
t
v
f
t
convictedn birth ontrol harges entto prison. rison erms aried rom endays
c
c
to three ears, utmost erefor neyear rless.At thetime f Comstock's eathin
w
o
o
o
y
b
d
i
f
c
1915, not a singlepersonconvicted orthe crimeof birth ontrol n the United
t
States ad receivedhemaximumentencellowedunder ederalaw.34
h
s
l
a
f
t
Although he decisions f jurors, rosecutors, judgeswereunique to each
o
p
and
s
t
o
courtrulingsuggestomecommonthemes hatsupported olerance f birth
t
case,
s
control. ne was theright o privacy. fter 873 judgesconfirmedongress's
O
t
A
1
C
jurisof
commerce o upholdtheconstitutionality
t
dictionoverthemailsand interstate
theComstock ct.But,raising hespecter f uncheckedentralizedower, hey et
A
t
o
s
c
p
t
limits n howfar ederal egulationouldgo. In Exparte ackson Supreme ourt
o
the
C
f
r
c
J
t
t
t
ruledthatCongress's ight o regulate he mailscould not abridge he Firstand
r
w
Fourth mendments,hich rotectedree peech nd defendeditizens rom nreafs
c
f
u
a
a
p
o
sonablesearches nd seizures. he privacy f the mailswas sacrosanct. No law
T
a
"
of Congresscan place in the hands of officials onnectedwiththe postal serc
t
o
vice,"thecourtstated, anyauthorityo invadethesecrecy f letters nd sealed
"
a
packagesin the mail." Insistingthat sealed materials epositedin the mails
d
.
remain"as fully uardedfromexamination . . as if theywereretained y the
g
b
t
t
partiesforwardinghemin theirown domiciles," he SupremeCourt insulated
mail-orderommerce rom hevery nspection hatcould havecurtailed hetrafc
f
t
t
t
i
ficin contraceptive
contraband.35
s
t
o
u
Applyingimilarogic,judgeschallenged helegitimacyf decoymethods sed
l
t
C
by postalinspectorso apprehend ontraceptive
c
proprietors.ourtsdistinguished
betweenthe detection f criminal rongdoing nd inducement f it through
o
a
o
w
s
t
b
entrapment.ecoy lettersentby agents osingas consumershreatenedoththe
D
p
I
privacy f themailsand the rulesof faircommerce.n 1894 an Oregondistrict
o
courtcondemned hemethods sed by a postalinspectoro demonstrate guilt
the
t
u
t
in
of Mrs.C. J.Adams,a contraceptive
T
h
entrepreneur Portland. o encourage erto
breakthelaw,theagenthad writtennd begged damsforcontraceptives,
a
A
falsely
assured erthat"youcan correspond ithme withabsolute ecrecy,"nd enclosed
h
w
a
s
for dams's convenience"ostage tamps or erreturnorrespondence. sevA
"
fh
After
p
s
c
eralincreasingly
a
A
T
desperateetters, damssold theagent "preventive
l
remedy."he
courtdecidedthatalthough dams had brokenthe law, it was the agent's wn
A
o
actionsthathad triggeredhe crime.Citingprevious ederal ulings enouncing
t
f
r
d
o
"thepractice f decoying r conniving ithpersons uspected f criminal esigns,"
o
w
o
s
d
34 Containers -3, Records f theNew YorkSociety or heSuppression f Vice; Brounand Leech, nthony
1
o
ft
o
A
B
Comstock, Dennett, irth ontrol aws,48.
167;
C
L
35ExparteJackson, U.S. 727, 733 (1877).
96
in t
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
451
theOregon istrict
d
court eclaredheagent'sonductreprehensible" found
d
t
c
"
and
n
Adams otguilty.36
of
Courts lsoinvokedheprinciple federalism. Unitedtates .Bott,hefirst
a
t
In
v
t
S
test f theComstockaw,a federalourt n NewYork pheld heconviction
o
i
L
c
u
t
of
in
John ottfor depositing themaila certainowder esignedndintendedor
B
"
p
d
a
f
the reventionconception." itwarnedhat lthoughongress
p
of
But
ta
C
could rohibit
p
theuseofthe ails for he ransmission ny rticle," the tatesould ake
m " tt
ofa a
only s
c
m
"thententoprevent
i
t
conception offence."rulingrom federal
an
A
fa
courtnMisi
v
went
The
the
U
S
f
souri, nitedtates.Whittier, a step urther. caseinvolved indictment
of a St. Louiscontraceptive
Clarke
to
entrepreneur, Whittier,ho,responding a
w
b
l
f
t
R
si
on
decoyetterromheNYSSV agent obert cFee, ent nstructionsbuyingirth
M
controlo a MissNettie . Harlan f Butler, eorgia, fictitious
t
G
o
a
G
identity
established yMcFee.Granting motion o quashWhittier's
b
the
t
indictment, circuit
the
h
t
court uled hat ongressas"nopower o make riminal using f means o
r
tC
c
the
o
t
"37
prevent
conception.
Both ulingsistinguished
betweenommerce use, elineating arefulivic
and
r
d
d
ac
d
sionofpower hat llowedhefederalovernment egulate
ta
t
tor
g
importation disand
but
to
t
t
their
semination contraceptivesreserved thestatesherightocriminalize
of
u
enacted ucha ban.38 evealing,ere, as the
s
w
actual se.YetonlyConnecticut
R
h
C
was
of
politicalath ottaken. onnecticut's
pn
singularity notthe onsequence politc
icalinertia.fter873most tateegislatures
A
sl
n
1
enacted eworrevisedbscenity
o
stataction.n choosing otto outlaw
I
n
utes indful even nspiredy, ongressional
m
of,
i
bc
a
f
c
h
such
contraceptive even fterederalourts adsanctioned legislative
use,
activity,
lawmakers silent ribute thelegitimacy birthontrols a private atter
t
to
of
a
paid
c
m
andanindividual
choice.
the
betweenersonalndentrepreneurial on the
a
Navigating boundaries
p
privacy
onehandandthepowersf Congressn theother,ourtslsostruggled define
o
o
c
a
to
What
o
tp
s
but
contraceptives. wasthe egal tatusfan articlehat revented
l
pregnancy
uses
T
in
had"legitimate" as well? hiswasthecentraluestion theobscenity of
trial
q
in
1
h
in
EzraHeywood,rrested October 882aftereadvertised aginalyringe his
a
av
s
the
newspaper, Word. eywood ad longdenouncedontraceptives hysically
H
h
c
as p
and
w
But
h
dangerous aesthetically
revolting. heloathed omstock,hom ereferred
C
to during istrial s a "religio-monomaniac," e wasappalled yComstock's
h
a
andh
b
classificationdouche endorss criminals, widespread of syringes
of
v
a
use
given
by
To assert principle tobait isfoe, eadvertised
h
women or ygienic
fh
a
and
h
purposes.
"the omstock
C
for
sent
o
o
syringe Preventing
Conception, prepaidn receiptfprice,
o
A
Comstock
e
arrestedeywood.39
$10"inthreeditionsftheWord. spredicted,
H
United tates .Adams, 9 F. 674, 675 (1894).
S
v
5
United tates . Bot, 24 E Cas. 1204, 1205 (C.C.S.D. N.Y. 1873) (No. 14, 626); United tates . Whittier,
S
v
S
v
28 F. Cas. 592 (1878 C.C.E.D. Missouri)(No. 16, 688).
38Ch. 78, 1879 Conn. Pub. Acts 128. On thesingularity theConnecticutaw,see Brooks, Early istory
of
l
"
H
Laws
a
the
ofAnti-Contraceptive in Massachusetts Connecticut";nd Grossberg, overning Hearth, 77, 187.
and
G
1
39 The label "Comstock," hough eliberate, as not Heywood's nvention; ew York endors ad previously
t
d
w
i
N
v
h
t
advertised omstocksyringes o signalthe device'scontraceptiveses. Ezra Heywood,FreeSpeech:Report f
C
u
o
F
Ezra H. Heywood'sefensePrinceton, ass., c. 1883), 6, 14-18; MartinHenryBlatt, reeLoveandAnarchism:
D
(
M
TheBiography Ezra HeywoodUrbana,1989), 144-45.
of
(
36
37
452
TheJournal Americanistory
of
H
September
2000
The cruxof Heywood's efense as themultiple sesof a vaginal yringe.here
d
w
u
T
s
was nothingboutthetechnologyf a syringehatmadeit inherentlypreventive,
a
o
t
a
he argued."Thousandsof physiciansnd druggists the States. . . declare[it]
a
in
in
of
invaluable,ndispensable thetreatment female iseases nd forapplyingocal
i
d
a
l
remedies o preserve ersonalhealthand purity." upporting he contemporary
t
p
t
S
beliefin thetherapeuticalueof douching whichhad gainedcredibility iththe
v
w
(
o
i
germ heoryf disease), eywoodasked:"Of theseven lefts,pertures,
t
H
c
a
opening n
woman's odythevagina s one;whosays tmaynotneedcleansings wellas theear,
i
i
b
a
orthenostril?"s a health ool,thesyringeadbecome othingessthana "necessary
A
l
t
h
n
accompaniment everyady's oilet." eenin this ight, hesyringe asno different
of
t
S
l
l
t
w
from,nd at leastas beneficials, other opular ygiene tensilslikea tooth rush
a
a
p
h
u
"
b
or towel."40
The logic of Heywood'sargument as compelling,specially o a sympathetic
w
t
e
o
T
judge.Fromthebeginningf thetrial, udge . L. Nelsonhad supported eywood,
J
H
him
h
permitting to conduct isown defense nd to use thecourtrooms a soapbox
a
a
t
by callingmore than threedozen witnesses o the standto relatethe obscenity
t
i
fs
concharge o broader ssuessuchas women's ights,ree peech, nd government
r
a
I
t
"
spiracy.n his chargeto the jury,Nelson specified,Whatever he wordsof the
advertisementaymean,unless he[Comstock yringe] designed r intended or
m
t
is
o
f
s
o
t
T
[thepreventionf conception] hecharge as notbeenproved." he jurors, nable
h
u
to view the syringes exclusively preventive,oundHeywoodnot guilty. eya
a
f
H
wood'sacquittal uddiedthelegalwaters, aking t significantly
i
m
harder o indict
t
m
and convict ontraceptive akers nd distributors.lmostevery ontraceptive
m
a
c
A
c
syringes,
sponges, ondoms, ntrauterine
i
c
devices, aginalpessaries-could be said
v
to possess edicinal r therapeuticalue.As thebirth ontrol dvocate nd entreo
m
v
c
a
a
i
.
preneur dwardB. Footeproclaimedn 1889, "articleshemselves. . willnot be
E
t
.
a
a
possibleto suppress. . . whilethereremains legitimate se forsuch things s
u
a
I
syringes,
sponges, otton, essariesnd vaseline." t becametheprosecutor's to
c
p
job
provesellers' uiltyntentionsnd, to be certain f conviction,headvertisedrtig
i
a
o
t
a
cle'sproprietary
use.41
EvenUnitedStates residentsejected omstock's igidity.lysses . Grant, ho
S
w
C
p
r
r
U
had signed heComstock aw,pardoned ive f thetwelvendividualsentencedo
t
fo
i
t
L
s
c
h
T
w
jail on birth ontrol harges uring is term. wo of thefive ereSethHunsdon
c
d
and James atterson,ormerperators f theAlbanyMedical Institute, ho had
f
o
w
P
o
b
t
o
originallyeensentencedo one yearof hardlaboreach.ArrestedyComstock n
b
April24 and 26, 1873,respectively, werepardoned yGrant n lateNovember
i
they
b
of thesameyear. omstock iewedthedecision s an error.O, thatI had known
C
v
a
"
of thisin timeto havegotthefacts efore rant," e wrote n his diary. It would
i
b
h
"
G
nothavebeengranted." etthefacts erepreciselyheissue.After unsdon's nd
Y
w
t
H
a
Patterson's
a
convictions,petitionigned ylocalclergymen their ongressman,
s
b
and
c
40Heywood, reeSpeech, 7-18; Blatt, reeLoveandAnarchism,44-45. On Americans' reoccupation ith
F
1
F
1
p
w
i
hygiene nd cleanlinessn the 1880s,see NancyTomes,The Gospel f Germs: en, Women,nd theMicrobe n
a
o
M
a
i
American ife(Cambridge, ass., 1998), 1-67.
L
M
41 Heywood, ree peech, 3; Blatt, ree oveandAnarchism,
FS
4
FL
144; Foote,RadicalRemedy SocialScience, 8.
in
9
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship Gilded ge
inthe
A
453
Lyman remain f Albany,nsisted hatthetwohad beenconvicted n a misrepreT
o
i
t
o
sentationf facts. rant, eviewinghefile, greed. iveyears ater resident utho
G
r
t
a
F
l
P
R
B
erford . Hayes pardonedHeywood,who beforehis "syringe"rialhad been
t
sentenced o two yearsof hard labor forcirculating upid'sYokes, pamphlet
t
C
a
fl
In
defendingreeoveand fertility
limitation. Hayes's yes, hepamphlet dvocated
e
t
a
"wrong deas,"but it was hardly obscene, ascivious,ewd or corrupting the
i
"
l
l
in
criminalense."Evaluating eywood's uiltthrough is own morallens,Hayeslet
s
H
g
h
Heywoodgo.42
After 873 others, oo, let their wn viewson moralitynd privacy uidetheir
1
t
o
a
g
assessmentsf contraceptive
o
criminality.
Although omstock ooksolacein blamC
t
a
o
o
o
of
ingrepeated ctsof clemency n theineptitudef officialsr thetreachery his
i
o
enemies,t was thereasoned eliberationf thosewho made up thecourtsystem,
d
notitscorruption, returnedirth ontrol roprietors thestreets. o be sure,
that
b
c
p
to
T
theleniencyccorded irth ontrol ffenders ayhavebeen related o widespread
a
b
c
o
m
t
o
t
loathing f Comstock, heman.Comstock's elligerence courtroom istrionics
b
and
h
offended
a
a
s
o
judges, lienated rosecutors, prompted steady tream f derogatory
p
and
a
editorials,artoons, nd poems in turn-of-the-century
c
a
newspapersnd journals.
t
o
f
But, although he frequent idiculingf Comstockmayhelp explainsupport or
r
violatorsf theComstock aw in general,tcannotaccount or hespecial eniency
o
i
ft
L
l
in
w
accordedbirthcontrol ffenders particular.43
t
o
Rather, hoseentrusted iththe
for
laws
t
responsibility enforcingontraceptive madechoicesthatbespoke olerance
c
of birth ontrol nd compassion oward hosewho sold it, a willingnesso see as
c
a
t
t
t
o
gray hatComstock ouldsee onlyas black-and-white. judicialdecisions f an
w
c
The
control re
a
t
c
b
a
age whenpopularattitudesoward riminal ehavior nd reproductive
to
o
often ifficult gaugeindexbroad-basedupport f bootlegbirth ontrol. uch
d
c
S
s
a
h
a
support ad economicramifications.
Favoring cquittal lmostas often s convica
in
tion and lightsentencings a rule,judgesand jurorscreated n environment
a
a
which lackmarket irth ontrol ouldthrive.
b
b
c
c
i
And so it did.Although heindustry's
t
a
illegal perationn theUnitedStates fter
o
w
a
of
s
1873 makes ccurate onitoring itseconomic tatusmpossible, e can gaugeits
m
i
o
f
i
commercial igorfrom variety f sources. reditreports, orexample, ndicate
a
C
v
that ostbirth ontrol roprietors wellafter 873; for any, hetrade rovided
m
c
t
p
did
1
m
p
l
B
decisive,ong-termpward obility. ecausethetrade equiredittle tart-upapil
u
m
r
s
c
i
o
w
tal,individuals f limited ealthcould enter t withease. Such was thecase with
I
was
of
GeorgeBrinckerhoff Brooklyn.n 1863 Brinckerhoff, thirty-five, a
aged
o
a
a
member f thefirm f Groom,Brothers, Company, grocerynd teabusiness.
o
and
s
The firm orrowedo heavily hatin June1867 it failed, 85,000 in debt.The colb
t
$
W
r
lapse initially uined Brinckerhoff's
professional eputation. hen he triedto
r
42
C
1
"Report f Persons rrested 1873"; Brounand Leech,Anthonyomstock,68; E. H. Heywood,Cupids
o
A
...
B
J
M
Yokes;r,TheBinding orces f Conjugal ife(Princeton, ass., 1877); Rutherford. HayesDiary, an.10, 1879,
o
F
o
L
H
W
in Diary and Lettersf Rutherford
o
Birchard ayes,ed. CharlesRichard illiams(Columbus,Oh., 1924), 518;
IndextotheCongressional
Record,3 Cong., 1 sess.,x.
4
43 In casesresultingrom omstock-initiated
w
arrests,onviction ates erelowestforthosecharged ithvioc
r
w
f
C
See
C
160,
lating irth ontrol nd abortion estrictions. Brounand Leech,Anthonyomstock, 164-66.
b
c
a
r
454
The JournalfAmerican istory
o
H
September000
2
resumehe usiness
tb
alone, hefound ehadno credit"ecause fthe"unfavorable
"
h
b
o
impression
entertainedthe ommunity
by c
relating hisfailure the eabusiness."
to
in T
o
In 1871, eretired the rocery
h
from g
business becameoleowner fthe ugenic
and
s
E
in
of
d
Manufacturing
Company,
specializing theproduction "severalifferent
styles
h
ofLadies ubber oods." lthoughomstockventually
R
C
G
A
e
caught pwith imand
u
the
a
hadhimarrested, casewasdropped,ndBrinckerhoff's andconfidence
profits
w
I
B
as a
b
grew.nAugust 878,crediteporters
1
r
describedrinckerhoffman hose usii
h
and
and
ness n rubberrticles
a
"yieldsimfair rofits" who"pays romptly is conp
p
s
sideredoodfor mallines ofcredit].
g
l
[
is
with
w
Equally elling thefrequency which enandwomen hocrossed aths
t
m
p
with omstocketurned their riminal ays. ultiplerrestsf birth ontrol
o
c
C
r
to
c
a
w
M
such
C
t
tb
a
purveyors as Sarah haseamountedo more han adluck. heyreflected
T
f
determination contraceptive
tos w a
w
among
proprietors tay ith business hose inanits
r
a
c
t
cialbenefits
outweighed legal isks. hase, single other, birthontrolo
C
m
sold
I
provideor erfamily's
fh
needs.n an economiculturehat estricted
c
tr
opportunities
for emalentrepreneurship randedusinesswomen
f
andb
b
the
e
deviant, contraceptive
and
two
illicit rades) asmore elw
w
business prostitution abortion, kindred
(like
t
o
than
coming f female roprietors other usinesses. other ontraceptive
p
b
Like
c
purveyors horan foul fthe aw, haserefused give pher usiness.45
w
a
o
lC
to
u
b
a
him
c
f
After
a
S
Juliuschmid'sareerollowedsimilarrajectory. Comstockrrested
t
in 1890for ellingkin ondoms,heimmigrant
s
sc
t
resumedislife fcondom rime.
h
o
c
At thetime f Comstock's
o
death n 1915,Schmid adbranchedutintorubbers
i
h
o
andlaunched hat ould ecome he ompany's
ww
tc
Ramsesondomine. n
I
b
c
l
signature
o
b
1938,initsfirsteportn the irthontrolusiness,
r
c
b
Fortune agazineronounced
m
p
S
and
of
te
c
t
Juliuschmid-founder president a companyhat ventoday laims he
market
o
sales
S
second-largest share f prophylactic in theUnited tates-theundisA
puted ing fthe merican
ko
condom mpire.46
e
Consumers
sustained
with
a
d
contraceptive
entrepreneurs their opes ndtheir olh
lars.Inventory
ha
listingsint t thevolume f traffic
o
involved. oraceBrown as
H
w
arrested ith5,000 condoms n hand,Martin hillips ith150 wombveils.
w
o
w
P
those
cannot ell showmany ontraceptives solddaily,hey
tu
Although figures
c
were
t
retailers'
communicate
that
w
t
expectations suchstock asneeded o keeppacewith
demand. rrestecordsccasionally
A
r
mp
reveal ore recisetatistics corroborate
s
that
o
this ssessment.henGlattstineasarrested March1, 1878,he admitted
a
W
w
on
to
44Credit reports orGeorgeBrinckerhoff, 202, p. 577 (entries orSept. 25, 1867, Aug. 15, 1871), vol.
f
vol.
f
370, p. 700 a/64 (entries orMay 27, Aug. 30, 1875, Oct. 10, 1881), p. 700 a/ 145 (entry orOct. 6, 1883),
f
f
R. G. Dun and CompanyCollection; Indictmentf GeorgeBrinckerhoff," 7, 1873, box 12, Criminal ase
o
"
Oct.
C
Filesof theU.S. CircuitCourtfortheSouthern istrict f New York(NationalArchives, egionalOffice, ew
D
o
R
N
York, .Y.); "Report f Persons rrested 1873."
N
o
A
...
45"Report f Persons rrested 1878"; credit eport orSarahB. Chase,vol. 389, p. 2293 (entries orOct.
o
A
...
f
r
f
20, 1879, March8, 1889, Feb. 12, 1890), R. G. Dun and CompanyCollection. n female ntrepreneurship,
O
e
see
Peiss,"VitalIndustrynd Women's entures"; amber, emale conomy; urphy,Business adies."
a
V
G
F
E
M
"
L
46U.S. PatentOffice,Official azette, arch 31, 1931, p. 75; ibid.,May 26, 1931, p. 883; "Accident f
M
G
o
Birth," 08; "Report f Persons rrested ndertheAuspices f theNew YorkSociety ortheSuppressionf Vice
1
o
A
U
o
f
o
fortheYear1890," container , Records f theNew YorkSociety ortheSuppression f Vice; Murphy, ondom
2
o
f
o
C
Industry theUnited tates, 0-12.
in
S
1
in t
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
Contraceptive
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
M ~I
455
:
w
"One
C
c
Thispaper ondom ackageontaining GoodGame ock" assold
c
p
in
atTristram
Texas
Pharmacy Brenham, (c. 1910).
A
T
Photograph ndrea one.
by
a
in
fw
selling 32 diaphragms theprevious ive eeks.HenryHunter's nnualprofits
4
b
t
from elling irth ontrol ereestimatedo be as highas $1,700 peryearin 1873.
c
w
s
f
o
l
o
t
Each day,he received n average f three o fourhundred etters f inquiry rom
a
v
A
a
c
prospective ustomers cross the country. fterthe diaphragm endor Henry
t
l
w
h
Hymes as arrested,e confessedhatas manyas "500 Brooklynadieswereusing
hisarticle."47
likewise ttestso theexistencef a flourishing
a
t
o
contracepMedicalcommentary
o
r
t
tivebusiness. hile manyphysicians,uidedby their wn beliefs ather hanthe
W
g
supported ontracepc
c
p
M
American edicalAssociation'solicyagainst ontraception,
i
"
w
t
8
tiveuse,those hodid notfound lenty o condemnn post-1 73 America. Amerp
in
icanpeople," bserved ne physician 1880,"suppresshefamilyncrease yevery
o
t
i
b
o
tt
c
T
H
a
device hat hearchfiend an suggest." he Bostonphysician . S. Pomeroy,uthor
47
A
...
o
A
...
o
A
o
"Report f Persons rrested 1873"; "Report f Persons rrested 1878"; "Report f Persons rrested
tA
of
Under he uspicesfthe ewYork ocietyor he uppressionVicefor he ear 874," ontainerRecords
o
N
ftS
tY 1
c
1,
S
ofthe ewYork ocietyor he uppressionVice.
N
ftS
of
S
456
The JournalfAmerican istory
o
H
2
September000
w
A
p
f
o
of the 1888 manual,TheEthics fMarriage, ound mericans' reoccupation ith
s
t
i
"
so
childlessness widespread hathe termed t simply theAmerican in." Certain
h
o
thatthosewho casually rokethe law mustbe ignorant f its existence, e conb
and
c
c
e
cludedhisbookwitha thirteen-page
appendix atalogingxistingontraceptive
abortion estrictions.48
r
t
w
use?
e
s
How universal ascontraceptive Demographicvidence uggestshecontina
rates b
o
control fter 873. Nationalfertility for othwhite
ued importancef fertility
1
a
a
l
1
and blackwomendroppedsteadily fter 880, reaching n all-timeow in 1940.
ft s
b
b
Otherfactors ayhelpaccount or his hift, utit is apparent oththatcontracepm
o
s
r
tivesplayeda critical ole and thatAmericans f widelyvarying ocioeconomic
u
backgrounds sed them. Indeed, althoughMargaretSanger insistedthat low
c
peoplefrom urchasingontracepp
incomes nd ignorance revented orking-class
a
p
w
a
p
a
view.
tives, vidence upports different Working eople'slimited ccessto physie
s
t
impedetheir bility o use contraceptives.
a
d
cians,forinstance, id not significantly
oral
Untilthe Food and Drug Administration
approved rescription-only contrap
i
o
t
acquired
includinghemostaffluent,
ceptivesn the1960s,a majorityf Americans,
I
t
n
birth ontrol ver hecounter, otfrom octors.n addition,heturn-of-the-century
c
ot
d
o
birth ontrol rade as highlytratified,
c
t
w
offering
contraceptivesa range f prices,
at
s
t
A
view
from . 1 condoms o $1.25 douchingyringes. deterministic of affordability
s
$
of
b
A
suchas Sanger's, oreover, asks hecomplexities consumer ehavior. lthough
m
t
m
o
a
i
a
householdncomes aybe fixed, erceptionsf whatconstitutesluxurynd what
m
p
s
a necessity not.The thousands f letters orking-class
are
o
w
Americansentto Sanger
b
c
r
t
v
w
and other irth ontrol roponentseflectheir iewthatcontraceptiveserenota
p
t
f
p
l
b
prohibitively
costlyuxury uta commodityewworking eoplecouldaffordo be
in
c
o
c
m
without. ignificantly,thefirst
s
large-scalelinical tudy f birth ontrol ethods
S
w
w
m
in use in theUnitedStates, oreof thepredominantlyorking-classomenand
mensurveyedad relied n purchasedontraceptives-theondom, ouche, ervio
d
c
c
h
c
cal cap,or suppository-than n natural ethods.49
o
m
48 "The Fashionable rime," ichigan edical ews, (1880), 341. Only in themid-1960s id a majorityf
C
M
M
N
3
d
o
family ractitioners internists
p
and
endorse ontraceptionpenlyas a legitimateieldof medicalpractice. hysic
o
f
P
cians'opposition nd ambivalencemplifiedheimportancef over-the-counter
a
a
t
o
methods. ee, forexample, . S.
S
S
Spivack,"The Doctor'sRole in Family lanning," ournal f the merican edicalAssociation,pril13, 1964,
P
J
o
A
M
A
p. 152; N. H. Wright, . Johnson,nd D. Mees, "Physicians' ttitudesn Georgiatoward amily lanning erG
a
A
i
F
P
S
vices,"in Advancesn PlannedParenthood, American ssociation f PlannedParenthood hysicians3 vols.,
i
ed.
A
o
P
(
New York,1968), III, 37; MortonA. Silver, Birth ontroland thePrivate hysician," amily lanning erspec"
C
P
F
P
P
4
tives, (Spring1972), 43; Pomeroy,thics fMarriage, 6, 59-60, 185-97.
E
o
5
"
o
W
R
S
49Margaretanger, The Preventionf Conception," oman ebel,1 (March 1914), 8. Between1880 and
1940 theaverage ertility of white omendroppedfrom .40 children o 2.10, of blackwomen,from .5 to
f
rate
w
4
t
7
W
3. See WilsonH. Grabill, lydeV. Kiser, nd PascalK. Whelpton,TheFertility American omenNew York,
C
a
of
(
1958); Stanley . Engerman,Changesin BlackFertility,
P
"
1880-1940," in Family nd Populationn Nineteentha
i
Century merica, d. TamaraK. Harevenand Maris A. Vinovskis Princeton, 978); Gordon, Woman's ody,
A
e
(
1
B
"
i
Woman's ight, 8; Jessie odrigue, The BlackCommunity nd the BirthControlMovement,"n Passion nd
a
a
R
4
R
Power: exuality History,d. KathyPeissand Christina immons(Philadelphia, 989), 138-39; and MaryP.
S
in
e
S
1
in
1
Ryan, Reproduction America," ournal fInterdisciplinary
"
J
o
History,0 (Autumn 979), 330. On prices, ee,for
1
s
example, ationalPoliceGazette, ov. 16, 1889, p. 14; Sears,Roebuck& Co., 1897 Sears oebuck atalogue,d.
N
N
R
C
e
Israel,32; and Mahood and Wenburg, osher urvey,ase 1. For working-class
M
S
c
attitudes oward ontraceptives,
t
c
t
see, for example,the BirthControl eview, he AmericanBirthControl League's monthly rgan,and the
R
o
B
o
underused enjamin . Lindsey apers(Manuscript ivision,Library f Congress).
B
P
D
Contraceptive
inthe
Entrepreneurship Gilded ge
A
457
Cheap did not automatically eanlessreliable. lmostall birth ontrol n this
m
i
A
c
t
era,includinghedoctor-endorsed
"safe" eriodor theVaseline ethod, ad a high
p
m
h
potential orfailure. efore irth ontrol roduction as standardizednd devices
f
B
b
c
p
w
a
fs
wereinspected or afetynd reliability,
a
retailers erefree o makeoutlandishlaims
w
t
c
and charge xorbitantrices. lthoughitesof birth ontrol uying aried yclass,
e
p
A
s
c
b
v
b
thesafetynd efficacy products ypicallyid not.Whether hey cquired ootleg
a
of
t
d
t
a
b
condomsfromdoctorsor "first-class
druggists,"r by mail orderthrough he
o
t
NationalPoliceGazette,onsumersssumed imilar isks, ortheproduction echc
s
f
a
r
t
nologies,bsence f regulation, economics f patent edicine lurredlassdisa
o
and
o
m
b
c
in
tinctions contraceptive
experience.50
birth
Identifying control s an issuethat rossed lassand ethnicines, ontracepa
c
c
l
c
tiveentrepreneurs
courted orking-class immigrantollars.The
and
d
aggressively
w
H
successof Antoinette on of South Bend, Indiana,who launcheda mail-order
birth ontrol usinessn 1905, is instructive. Polishimmigrant,on advertised
c
i
A
H
b
herdouching owders nd wombsuppositories Polishnewspapersuchas Chip
a
in
s
in
cago'sZgoda. Hon foundloyalcustomers Polishwomen,who paid $1.00 fora
boxof powders nd $3.25 for batchof suppositories adeof chemicalshat ciena
a
ts
m
I
tistsbegrudgingly
concededwerespermicidal.n 1917, Hon's annualsalary, uss
o
tained ythedollars f workingnd immigrantomen, as $3,600.51
b
a
w
w
Birth ontrol dvertisementsblacknewspapersimilarlyointto a mail-order
c
in
a
s
p
t
A
and drugstoreontraceptive within heAfrican merican ommunity.ultic
trade
C
c
a
A
w
a
m
vating n imageof African merican ropriety ithin cultural ilieuthatporp
b
t
fi
trayed lackmenas hypersexualized then unished hem or t,blacknewspapers
and
p
sexualdevicesessfrequently. they rintedomesuchadvertisements,
l
But
s
advertised
p
in
c
b
m
and as birth ontrol ecamemorerespectable the1920s,they rinted ore.52
p
it
t
Although urvivingorrespondence
s
c
privilegesheviewsof affluentmericans,
A
o
w
a
offers
e
importantvidence f the casualness ithwhichsexually ctiveindividuals
t
of
after
c
discussed heintended nd actualprocurement contraceptives birth ontrol
a
became crime. he correspondence VioletBlair anin nd herhusband lberts
a
T
of
a
A
i
J
T
illustrative.he couple weremarried ay 14, 1874, fourteen onthsafter he
m
t
M
Comstock aw was passed.FromAlbert's oastsof "hymen reaking" e can surL
b
w
b
t
t
h
O
In thesurvey f birth ontrol, f 1,208 patients, 00 stated hatthey ad used contraceptives.f these, he
o
c
o
8
device(IUD) by2%, thecervidouchewas usedby60%, thecondomby42%, thespongeby4%, theintrauterine
b
cal cap by 10%, thetabletby2%, thepowderby 5%, thesuppository y 12%, and the"doucheplus chemical"
b
b
b
by 50%. Amongnonmarket ethods sed by the800, "nursing aby"was favored y30%, malewithdrawal y
m
u
B
C
M
b
a
B
(
40%, "holding ack"by30%, and complete bstinence y4%. See Dorothy ocker, irth ontrol ethodsNew
b
York,1924), 4-7.
50 As Linda Gordonhas argued, lassdifferentialscontraceptive
in
practicen thenineteenthenturywere ot
i
c
"
n
c
as greatas theyare today,becausethe best availablemethods ere not so good as theyare today."Gordon,
w
Womans ody, omans ight, 0.
W
B
R
7
51 Hearings f Mrs. A. S. Hon, Sept. 21, 1917, box 63, Transcripts Hearings n FraudCases, 1913-45,
of
o
o
PostOffice epartment ecords.
R
D
f
O
Sentinel, une , 1896, p. 3; andAtlantandependent, 4, 1904,
I
June
52See, orexample, mahaAfro-American
J6
o
a
s
c
p. 6. On the contraceptive
agency f blacksin the late nineteenthnd earlytwentiethenturies,ee Rodrigue,
K
t
R
"BlackCommunitynd theBirthControlMovement," 38-54; DorothyRoberts, illing heBlackBody. ace,
a
1
"
o
Reproduction, the eaning fLiberty
and M
o
(New York,1997), 82-86; and GeorgeSchuyler,Quantity r Quality,"
Birth ontrol eview, 6 (June1932), 165-66.
C
R
1
458
TheJournal fAmerican istory
o
H
September000
2
misethat iolet's irstxperiencef intercourse
V
fe
o
t
F
occurred hatnight. romthenon,
the brideawaitedthe onsetof herperiodwithnew anxiety,incea fearof dying
s
b
h
i
during hildbearingecauseof long-standing
c
gynecologicalroblems ad forgedn
p
herminda resolve o staychildless. egrudgingly,
V
t
Albert upported iolet'sgoal.
B
s
w
Since May the couple had been usingthe rhythm ethod, ithAlbertcarefully
m
recording hathe believed ereViolet'ssafeand unsafe ays.But Violetdid not
w
w
d
t
t
w
i
trust hetechnique,nd herletterso Albert, howorked n New Orleansas a lawa
w
w
A
w
yermuchof theyear, ereplagued ithworry. t a timewhenthesafeperiod as
t
b
m
generallyelieved o be themidway ointin a woman's enstrualycle(thevery
p
c
timewhen,we now know,conceptions mostlikely o occur),too manywomen
i
t
and men had seen thisand othernatural ethods f birth ontrol ail.Only the
m
o
c
f
arrival f hermenstrualeriodcould putViolet's indat ease,and yetitsappearo
p
m
anceinvariably thestage or newmonthly ramato begin.53
set
fa
d
s
c
V
By November he had had enough.When a female omeopath onfirmed ioh
let's uspicionshat regnancy
s
tp
couldbe fatal,hewrote lbert hat"itis bestthat e
s
A
t
w
shouldhaveno children.... So I renouncell ideasof it."Renouncinghildren as
a
c
w
one thing, enouncing another. he couplediscardedhemaligned hythm
T
sex
t
techr
r
a
b
nique forcondoms, commercial ethod hey othconsidered orereliable. n
m
t
m
O
November 6 Violetdiscreetly
2
f
askedAlbert: Wouldit be possible oryou to find
"
t
something ou told me about?"By the timeherletter rrived, lbert, illing o
y
a
A
w
i
u
h
not
foregontercoursentilViolet's ealth mproved utpreferring to,had already
i
b
a
"
stocked supply. I havemanaged o procure omethings haveonceor twice pot
s
I
s
kento you about,"he wrote layfully.
p
"Can you guesswhatthey re?I haveoften
a
s
tI
wished incethe14thof May [their edding ight] hat had someof them." uyw
n
B
i
ingcondomsn New Orleans pparently
a
presentedo obstacles orth entioning.54
n
w
m
What emerges rom heJanins' roseis not pangsof guiltforbreakinghelaw
t
f
t
p
but a sharedresolve o keep Violet from ecoming regnant, hatever he cost.
t
w
t
b
p
Whether ioletand Albert venknewaboutthenewprohibitions unclear. oth
V
e
is
B
o
wereardent ollowersf national olitics, uttheComstock aw was notheadline
f
b
L
p
news,and it wouldhavebeen easyforthemto miss.Whatever heir nowledge f
t
o
k
thelaw,VioletandAlbert urned o thecontraceptive arket ecausethey elieved
t
m
t
b
b
b
c
m
b
b
c
purchased irth ontrol eant etter irth ontrol.
In post-1873 merica, hey epresented of many omenand menwho felt
two
w
A
t
r
that ayand actedaccordingly.ontraceptiveserediscussedn private orresponw
i
w
C
c
b
w
dence,notas bootleg oods,butas a useful edroom ommodity hoseavailability
g
c
53 Albert anin o VioletBlair anin, uly , 1874,Janin amily ollection Huntington ibrarynd Archives,
J
t
J
J3
F
C
(
L
a
San Marino,Calif.);VioletBlairJanin o Albert anin, ug. 22, 1874, ibid. On medicalviewsof,and women's
t
J
A
firsthand
experiences ith, hesafeperiod, ee Margaret arshand Wanda Ronner, heEmpty radle: nfertility
t
s
M
w
T
C
I
inAmericarom olonialTimes othePresent
f
C
t
(Baltimore, 996), 84-85; EricMatsner nd Frederick olden, The
1
a
H
TechniquefContraception
o
(Baltimore, 938), 33; John ockand Marshall . Bartlett,Biopsy tudies f Human
1
R
K
"
S
o
E
Endometrium,"ournal f theAmerican edicalAssociation,une12, 1937, pp. 2022-28; Irving Steinand
J
M
o
J
MelvinR. Cohen, "AnEvaluation f theSafePeriod," bid.,Jan.22, 1938, pp. 257-61; Kennedy, irth ontrol
o
i
B
C
inAmerica,10; Abe Laufe, d.,AnArmy octorsWife n the rontier:etters Alaskaand the ar West,8742
e
D
o
F
L
from
F
1
1878 (Pittsburgh,
1962), 165.
54 VioletBlair anin o Albert anin, ov. 23, 26, 1874,Janin amily ollection; lbert anin o VioletBlair
J
t
J
N
F
C
A
J
t
N
Janin, ov. 24, 1874, ibid.
in t
Contraceptive
Entrepreneurship heGildedAge
459
w
and efficacy ereworth oting o lovers nd friends.n 1885 RoseWilliams rote
n
t
a
I
w
to hernewlywed riend llettie osher,"You wantto knowof a surepreventaf
A
M
tive.... TheyarecalledPessairrer female reventative....Theycostone dollar.
o
p
. . .The Directions re withit." In thesamespirit aryHallock Foote of Idaho
a
M
advised elenaGilder f NewYork n 1876 about"a sure ayof limitingne'sfamH
o
i
w
o
ily." hey"arecalledcundums nd aremadeeither f rubber rskin. heyareto be
T
a
o
o
T
had at first-class
druggists."bout a yearlater, aryprovided erfriend ithan
A
h
M
w
update.She and herhusband ound ondomsunpleasant, aryadmitted, utthey
f
c
M
b
t
f
continued o use themanyway, orgood reason:condomsworked, hereas he
w
t
rhythm ethod id not.Maryknewwhereofhespoke.She had becomepregnant
m
d
s
h
counting er"safe ays.""The 'French hields' avesavedme,"MarytoldHelena.
d
h
s
is
"Everything dreadful xceptnatureand Nature is like the letterof the law
e
which faileth."55
o
m
Suchlettersffer orethana touching ributeo thedetermination womenand
t
t
of
men in late-nineteenth-century
Americato restrictheirfertility.
t
They call into
of
questiontraditionalnterpretations the impactof birthcontrollaws in the
i
A
i
UnitedStates ost-1873. s moralreformers
t
p
found n other ttemptso restructure
a
o
t
behavior,hepresence f a law on thebooksdid notworkthefundamental
change
T
itsproponents esired. he volumeof smuttraffic, limited umber f agents
the
o
d
n
t
o
e
to
assigned o policeit,and contraceptive
purveyors'wncunning hwartedfforts
t
b
c
Those arrested, oreover,requently
o
discovered
apprehend irth ontrol ffenders.
m
f
w
t
thatthose ho brokeand thosewho enforcedhelawwereon thesameside.From
o
t
t
jurorsto prosecutorso judgesto presidentsf the UnitedStates, he men who
t
o
let
would define he legal meaning f contraceptive
criminalization birthcontrol
offenders free.
go
The social,sexual, nd economic andscape f post-1873 merica as populated
o
a
A
w
l
withindividuals ho defined hemeaning f contraceptive
w
t
o
in
criminalization their
ownterms. herewas theHonorable . L. Nelson, hosecharge o theBostonjury
T
T
t
w
t
specified hatEzra Heywoodwas guilty nlyif the government
could provethe
o
Therewas
t
w
a
impossible:hatthe"Comstock yringe" as exclusivelycontraceptive.
s
o
SarahChase,who defied onvention, omstock, nd thelaw by lecturingn and
a
c
C
t
E
o
Down inTexas, here asUberto zellwho,withthoughtsf
w
selling ontraceptives.
c
t
w
commercialrandeur,
inventedhe"malepouch."And thenthere asAlbert anin,
g
J
who couldscarcely aitto try ut hisNew Orleanscondoms ithhisWashington,
w
o
w
v
d
D.C., wife.These individuals id not cast their oteson the Comstockbill. Yet
v
t
a
throughheir ctions-some quiet,others penly efiant-theymade their iews
o
d
known. ollectively, helpedsustain trade ongress ad declared crime.
a
h
a
C
they
C
55 Elizabeth ampsten, d., Read ThisOnly oYourself hePrivate ritings Midwestern omen,880-1910
of
W
1
t
T
W
H
e
A
(Bloomington,982), 104; Degler, t Odds,224-25.
1