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46 Pages

module21-mcast

Course: CS 458, Fall 2011
School: UVA
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Word Count: 2402

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Multicasting Relates IP to Lab 10. It covers IP multicasting, including multicast addressing, IGMP, and multicast routing. 1 Applications with multiple receivers Many applications transmit the same data at one time to multiple receivers Broadcasts of Radio or Video Videoconferencing Shared Applications A network must have mechanisms to support such applications in an efficient manner 2 Motivation...

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Multicasting Relates IP to Lab 10. It covers IP multicasting, including multicast addressing, IGMP, and multicast routing. 1 Applications with multiple receivers Many applications transmit the same data at one time to multiple receivers Broadcasts of Radio or Video Videoconferencing Shared Applications A network must have mechanisms to support such applications in an efficient manner 2 Motivation "Together, Internet broadcasting and multicasting are the next chapters in the evolution of the Internet as a revolutionary catalyst for the information age." Vint Cerf,Senior vice president of MCI/Worldcom,April 1999. 3 Multicasting Multicast communications refers to one-to-many or many-tomany communications. Unicast Broadcast Multicast IP Multicasting refers to the implementation of multicast communication in the Internet 4 Multicasting over a Packet Network Without support for multicast at the network layer: Multiple copies of the same message is transmitted on the same link 5 Multicasting over a Packet Network With support for multicast at the network layer: Requires a set of mechanisms: (1) Packet forwarding can send multiple copies of same packet (2) Multicast routing algorithm which builds a spanning tree (dynamically) 6 Semantics of IP Multicast IP multicast works as follows: Multicast groups are identified by IP addresses in the range 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255 (class D address) Every host (more precisely: interface) can join and leave a multicast group dynamically no access control Every IP datagram send to a multicast group is transmitted to all members of the group no security, no "floor control" The IP Multicast service is unreliable 7 The IP Protocol Stack IP Multicasting only supports UDP as higher layer There is no multicast TCP ! User Layer Socket Layer Stream Sockets Datagram Sockets Multicast Sockets TCP IP UDP IP Multicast Network Interface 8 IP Multicasting There are three essential components of the IP Multicast service: IP Multicast Addressing IP Group Management Multicast Routing 9 Multicast Addressing All Class D addresses are multicast addresses: Class D 1 1 1 0 From multicast group id 28 bits Class To D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 Multicast addresses are dynamically assigned. An IP datagram sent to a multicast address is forwarded to everyone who has joined the multicast group If an application is terminated, the multicast address is (implicitly) released. 10 Types of Multicast addresses The range of addresses between 224.0.0.0 and 224.0.0.255, inclusive, is reserved for the use of routing protocols and other low-level topology discovery or maintenance protocols Multicast routers should not forward any multicast datagram with destination addresses in this range. Examples of special and reserved Class D addresses, e.g, 224.0.0.1 224.0.0.2 224.0.1.1 224.0.0.9 All systems on this subnet All routers on this subnet NTP (Network Time Protocol) RIP-2 (a routing protocol) 11 Multicast Address Translation In Ethernet MAC addresses, a multicast address is identified by setting the lowest bit of the "most left byte" ------1 ------------------------------------ Not all Ethernet cards can filter multicast addresses in hardware - Then: Filtering is done in software by device driver. 12 Multicast Address Mapping Identifes Class D Ignored 23-bit address Ethernet Addresses with 01:00:5e in the first 3 bytes are reserved for IP multicast 0000000 1 00000000 1110 xxxx x ------- -------- -------- Class D IP Address 01011110 0 ------- -------- -------- Ethernet Address 13 IGMP The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a simple protocol for the support of IP multicast. IGMP is defined in RFC 1112. IGMP operates on a physical network (e.g., single Ethernet Segment. IGMP is used by multicast routers to keep track of membership in a multicast group. Support for: Joining a multicast group Query membership Send membership reports 14 IGMP Protocol A host sends an IGMP report when it joins a multicast group (Note: multiple processes on a host can join. A report is sent only for the first process). No report is sent when a process leaves a group A multicast router regularly multicasts an IGMP query to all hosts (group address is set to zero). A host responds to an IGMP query with an IGMP report. Multicast router keeps a table on the multicast groups that have joined hosts. The router only forwards a packet, if there is a host still joined. Note: Router does not keep track which host is joined. 15 IGMP Packet Format IGMP messages are only 8 bytes long 14 bytes 20 bytes Ethernet Header IP header 8 bytes IGMP Message Version (= 0) Type (=1-2) (unused) 32-bit Class D address Checksum Type: 1 = sent by router, 2 = sent by host 16 IGMP Protocol H1 H2 R1 Ethernet IGMP query IGMP Report 17 IGMP Protocol H1 H2 R1 Ethernet IGMP general query IGMP group address = 0 Destination IP address = 224.0.0.1 Source IP address = router's IP address IGMP group-specific query IGMP group address = group address Destination IP address = group address Source IP address = router's IP address IGMP membership report IGMP group address = group address Destination IP address= group address Source IP address = host's IP address 18 Networks with multiple multicast routers Only one router responds to IGMP queries (Querier) Router with smallest IP address becomes the querier on a network. One router forwards multicast packets to the network (Forwarder). Multicast Network Querier Forwarder Multicast packet IGMP query Ethernet Host 19 Multicast Routing Protocols Goal: Build a spanning tree between all members of a multicast group 20 Multicast routing as a graph problem Problem: Embed a tree such that all multicast group members are connected by the tree S 21 Multicast routing as a graph problem Problem: Embed a tree such that all multicast group members are connected by the tree Solution 1: Shortest Path Tree or source-based tree Build a tree that minimizes the path cost from the source to each receiver Good tree if there is a single sender If there are multiple senders, need one tree per sender Easy to compute S 22 Multicast routing as a graph problem Problem: Embed a tree such that all multicast group members are connected by the tree Solution 2: Minimum-Cost Tree Build a tree that minimizes the total cost of the edges Good solution if there are multiple senders Very expensive to compute (not practical for more than 30 nodes) S 23 Multicast routing in practice Routing Protocols implement one of two approaches: 1. Source Based Tree: Essentially implements Solution 1. Builds one shortest path tree for each sender Tree is built from receiver to the sender reverse shortest path / reverse path forwarding 1. Core-based Tree: Build a single distribution tree that is shared by all senders Does not use Solution 2 (because it is too expensive) Selects one router as a "core" (also called "rendezvous point") All receivers build a shortest path to the core reverse shortest path / reverse path forwarding 24 Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF) RPF builds a shortest path tree in a distributed fashion by taking advantage of the unicast routing tables. Main idea: Given the address of the root of the tree, a router selects as its upstream neighbor in the tree the router which is the next-hop neighbor for forwarding unicast packets to the root. H1 How can this be used to build tree? 1. a RPF Forwarding: Forward a packet only if it is receives from an RPF neighbor 2. Set up multicast routing table in according from receiver to sender along the reverse shortest path tree RPF neighbor of R3 for H2 RPF interface for H2 Source R1 R2 Unicast routing table of router R3: Destination Next Hop H1 R2 ... R3 R4 R5 25 Multicast routing in practice Routing algorithms in practice implement one of two approaches: 1. Source Based Tree Tree: Establish a reverse path to the source Establish a reverse path to the core router 1. Core-based Tree: 26 Multicast Routing table Routing table entries for source-based trees and for core-based trees are different Source-based tree: (Source, Group) or (S, G) entry. Core-based tree: (*, G) entry. Source IP address S1 * Multicast group G1 G2 Incoming interface (RPF interface) I1 I2 Outgoing interface list I2, I3 I1, I3 27 Building a source-based tree Set routing tables according to RPF forwarding Flood-and-Prune R2 R4 H1 Source R1 R3 H2 R5 R6 H3 joined R7 R8 H4 joined H5 28 Building a source-based tree Set routing tables according to RPF forwarding Flood-and-Prune Flood= Forward packets that R5 arrive on RPF interface on all non-RPF interfaces R2 R4 H1 Source R1 R3 H2 R6 R7 H3 joined R8 H4 joined H5 29 Building a source-based tree Set routing tables according to RPF forwarding Flood-and-Prune R1 H1 Source Flood= Forward packets on all non-RPF interfaces Receiver drops packets not received on RPF interface R5 R2 R4 R3 H2 R6 R7 H3 joined R8 H4 joined H5 30 Building a source-based tree Set routing tables according to RPF forwarding Flood-and-Prune Prune= Send a prune message R5 when a packet is received on a non-RPF interface or when there are no receivers downstream Prune message disables routing table entry H1 Source R1 R2 Pru ne Prune R3 R4 e Prun H2 ne Pru e un Pr Prune Pru ne Prune Prune R6 n Pru e Pru ne H3 joined R7 Prune R8 H4 joined H5 31 Pruning Prune message temporarily disables a routing table entry Effect: Removes a link from the multicast tree No multicast messages are sent on a pruned link Prune message is sent in response to a multicast packet Question: Why is routing table only temporarily disabled? Who sends prune messages? A router with no group members in its local network and no connection to other routers A router with no group members in its local network which has received a prune message on all non-RPF interfaces A router with group members which has received a packet from a non-RPF neighbor 32 Building a source-based tree When a receiver joins, one needs to re-activate a pruned routing table entry Grafting Sending a Graft message disables R5 prune, and re-activates routing table entry. H3 joined H1 Source R1 R2 R4 ft ra G R3 H2 R6 Graft R7 R8 H4 joined joined H5 33 Alternative method for building a source-based tree This only works if the receiver knows the source Explicit-Join Receiver sends a Join message to RPF neighbor Join message creates (S,G) routing table entry Join message is passed on R5 Jo in Jo in H1 Source n Joi R1 Joi n R2 R4 R3 H2 R6 H3 joined R7 R8 H4 joined H5 34 Building a core-based tree One route is the core Receiver sends a Join message to RPF neighbor with respect to core Join message creates R5 (*, G) routing table entry H3 joined H1 Source R1 R2 R3 Core R4 Join Join H2 Jo in R6 Join H4 joined Join R7 R8 H5 joined 35 Building a core-based tree Source sends data to the core Core forwards data according to routing table entry H1 Source R1 R2 R3 Core R4 H2 R5 R6 H3 joined R7 R8 H4 joined H5 joined 36 Multicast routing protocols in the Internet Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP): First multicast routing protocol Implements flood-and-prune Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF): Multicast extensions to OSPF. Each router calculates a shortest-path tree based on link state database Not widely used Core Based Tree (CBT): First core-based tree routing protocol Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM):[1] Runs in two modes: PIM Dense Mode (PIM-DM) and PIM Sparse Mode (PIMSM). PIM-DM builds source-based trees using flood-and-prune PIM-SM builds core-based trees as well as source-based trees with explicit joins. [1] RFC2362 37 PIM Messages (PIM version 2) 32 bit Version (= 2) Type Reserved Checksum Message type specific part PIM-DM messages Hello Register Register-Stop Join/Prune Bootstrap Assert Graft Graft-Ack Candidate-RPAdvertisement Type 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PIM-DM PIM-SM Encapsulated in IP datagrams with protocol number 103. PIM messages can be sent as unicast or multicast packet 224.0.0.13 is reserved as the ALL-PIM-Routers group 38 PIM-DM: PIM Dense Mode PIM-DM implements flood-and-prune Orange packet: Multicast packet (=Data) Blue packet: PIM message R3 src: S1 dest: G S1 Source src: S1 dest: G R1 src: S1 dest: G I1 R2 src: S1 dest: G I1 I3 src: S1 dest: G prune (H1, G) R4 H2 joined H3 39 PIM-SM: PIM Sparse Mode Core is called rendezvous-point (RP) Receivers know RP (statically configured or dynamically elected) When receiver joins, a Join message is sent to RP on RPF. S1 Source R1 RP I1 R2 I1 I3 join (*, G) R5 R3 join (*, G) R4 IGMP H2 joined H3 (a) PIM-SM: H2 joins 40 PIM-SM: PIM Sparse Mode Host H3 joins: Join message is only forwarded until the first router that is part of the core-based tree. S1 Source R1 RP I1 R2 I1 I3 R5 R3 join (*, G) R4 IGMP H2 joined H3 41 PIM-SM: Data transmission Source sends multicast packet to RP Packet is attached to an RP Register message When packet reaches RP, it is forwarded in the tree R3 S1 Source src: S1 dest: G R1 register src: S1 (S1, G) dest: G join (S1,G) I1 R2 I1 src: S1 dest: G I3 src: S1 dest: G R5 RP R4 Also: RP sends a Join message on reverse path to S1 src: S1 dest: G H2 joined H3 (a) PIM-SM: Register message to RP 42 PIM-SM: Data transmission When Join messages reaches R1, it sends a native multicast packet to the RP (in addition to the packet attached to the register message) S1 Source src: S1 dest: G R1 src: S1 dest: G register src: S1 (S1, G) dest: G I1 R2 I1 src: S1 dest: G I3 src: S1 dest: G R5 RP R3 R4 src: S1 dest: G H2 joined H3 43 PIM-SM: Data transmission When RP receives native multicast packet it sends a register stop message to R1. This message stops the transmission of register messages from R1. S1 Source src: S1 dest: G R1 src: S1 dest: G register src: S1 (S1, G) dest: G register stop (S1,G) I1 R2 I1 src: S1 dest: G I3 src: S1 dest: G R5 RP R3 R4 src: S1 dest: G H2 joined H3 44 PIM-SM: Switching to source-based tree When data to receivers exceeds a threshold, routers switch to a source-based tree This is done by sending an explicit join message to the source There may be duplicate packets being sent for some time S1 Source src: S1 dest: G R1 src: S1 dest: G join (S1,G) I1 RP R2 I1 join (S1,G) I3 src: S1 dest: G R5 src: S1 dest: G R3 src: S1 dest: G R4 H2 joined H3 (a) PIM-SM: R3 switches to a SPT 45 PIM-SM: Switching to source-based tree S1 When data arrives from source (as opposed to RP), a Prune message is sent to the RPT Now: data is forwarded only along the shortestpath tree Source src: S1 dest: G R1 src: S1 dest: G RP I1 R2 I1 prune (S,G,RPT) src: S1 dest: G I3 prune (S,G,RPT) R5 R3 src: S1 dest: G R4 H2 joined H3 (b) PIM-SM: Data follows a SPT 46
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Fourier Series An ExampleFormulas: Let f(x) be periodic with period 2 . We want to writeA0+2f (x) =(Ak cos kx + Bk sin kx) .1The Fourier coecients are given by the formulas11f (x) cos kx dxBk =f (x) sin kx dx.Ak = Moreover one has the an
UPenn - MATH - 260
Fourier Series of f (x) = xGiven a real periodic function f (x) , < x < , one can nd its Fourier series in two(equivalent) ways: using trigonometric functions:cos kxsin kxa0f (x) = + ak + bk 2 k=1or using the complex exponentialf (x) =eikxck .
UPenn - MATH - 260
Math 425, Spring 2011Jerry L. KazdanInner Product SummaryVN = span cfw_1, cos x, cos 2x, . . . , cos Nx, sin x, . . . , sin Nx.An orthonormal basis is:This is a summary of some items from class on Tues, Feb. 15, 2011.S ETTING : Linear spaces X , Y w
UPenn - MATH - 260
Math 425, Spring 2011Jerry L. KazdanInner Product SummaryThis is a summary of some items from class on Tues, Feb. 15, 2011.S ETTING : Linear spaces X , Y with inner products ,Example: X = R4 and Y = R7 .Vectors x, z X are orthogonal if x, zXXand
UPenn - MATH - 260
Math 425, Spring 2011Jerry L. KazdanInner Product SummaryThis is a summary of some items from class on Tues, Feb. 15,2011.S ETTING : Linear spaces X , Y with inner products , X and, Y.Example: X = R4 and Y = R7 .Vectors x, z X are orthogonal if x,
UPenn - MATH - 260
Math 260, Spring 2012Jerry L. KazdanClass Outline: Jan. 19, 20121. Definitions: Homogeneous equation, inhomogeneous equation.Basic Lemma: If you have n linear algebraic equations in k unknowns, and if n > k(so more equations than unknowns), then the
UPenn - MATH - 260
Math 260, Spring 2012Jerry L. KazdanClass Outline: Jan. 24, 20121. Example: quadratic polynomials p(x) with p(1) = 0.2. Polynomial Interpolation. Find a quadratic polynomial withp(1) = 1,p(2) = 1,p(4) = 3.p2 (x) = x,p3 (x) := x2 .Methods:Naive