11
Depreciation, CHAPTER Impairments, and Depletion
CHAPTER REVIEW
*Note: All asterisked (*) items relate to material contained in the Appendix to the chapter. 1. Chapter 11 presents a discussion of the factors involved in the accounting and recording of depreciation and depletion and the methods of writing off the cost of tangible assets and natural resources. Depreciation refers to a cost allocation of tangible plant assets. Depletion is the term used to describe the cost allocation related to natural resources such as timber, oil, or coal. Amortization is the term used to describe the expiration of intangible assets. In addition to a thorough discussion of the accounting problems involved, the chapter presents a detailed analysis and explanation of the various depreciation and write off methods used in practice. Depreciation Process 2. (L.O. 1)Depreciation is the accounting process of allocating the cost of tangible assets to expense in a systematic and rational manner to those periods expected to benefit from the use of the asset. The cost allocation approach is justified because it matches costs with revenues and because fluctuation in market values is difficult to determine. 3. (L.O. 2)To compute depreciation, an accountant must establish (a) the depreciable base to be used for the asset, (b) the asset's useful life, and (c) the depreciation method to be used. Determination of the first two factors requires the use of estimates. 4. The depreciable base is the difference between an asset's cost and its salvage value. Salvage value is the estimated amount that will be received at the time the asset is sold or removed from service. 5. The useful life (service life) of a plant asset refers to the number of years that asset is capable of economically providing the service it was purchased to perform. The service life of an asset should not be confused with its physical life. For example, a machine may no longer provide a useful service to an organization even though it remains physically functional. Thus, the estimate of an asset's service life is dependent upon both the economic factors and the physical factors related to its use. Economic factors are characterized by inadequacy, supersession, and obsolescence. Physical factors relate to wear and tear, decay, and casualties that prevent the asset from performing indefinitely.
Depreciation Methods 6. The depreciation method selected for a particular asset should be systematic and rational. Depreciation methods may be classified as: A. Activity method (units of use or production). B. Straight-line method. C. Decreasing-charge methods (accelerated): a. Sum-of-the-years'-digits. b. Declining-balance method. D. Special depreciation methods. a. Group and composite methods. b. Hybrid or combination methods. 7. The following information for a piece of machinery will be used to illustrate some of the depreciation methods discussed in the following paragraphs. Cost of machine Estimated useful life Estimated salvage value Productive life in hours $260,000 10 years $20,000 60,000 hours
8. (L.O. 3)When the activity method (units-ofproduction approach) is used, depreciation is assumed to be a function of productivity rather than the passage of time. This method is most appropriate for assets such as machinery or automobiles where depreciation can be based on units produced or miles driven. One problem associated with the use of this method concerns a before-the-fact estimation of the total output the asset will achieve during its useful life. Illustration Assume the machine was used for 6,800 hours in the first year of its useful life. (Cost less salvage) XHours this year =Depreciation Charge Total estimated hours ($260,000 $20,000) X 6,800 = $27,200 60,000
9. Use of the straight-line method results in a uniform charge to depreciation expense during each year of an asset's service life. This method is based upon the assumption that the decline in an asset's usefulness is the same each year. Although the straight-line method is easy to use, it rests on an assumption that, in most situations, is not realistic. Illustration Cost less salvage = Depreciation Charge Estimated service life ($260,000 $20,000) = $24,000 10 10. The decreasing-charge (accelerated depreciation) methods result in a higher depreciation cost during the early years of an asset's service life and lower charges in later years. This approach is justified on the basis that assets lose a greater amount of service potential in earlier years and thus depreciation should be higher. 11. The sum-of-the-years'-digits method and the declining-balance method are the two most often used decreasing charge methods. The sum-of-the-years' digits method requires multiplication of the depreciable base by a fraction that decreases during each year of an asset's service life. The declining-balance method requires use of a constant percentage applied to an asset's book value (cost less accumulated depreciation). Salvage value is initially ignored under the declining-balance method. Illustration Sum-of-Years' Digits (Cost Salvage Value) X Depreciation Fraction = Depreciation Charge ($260,000 $20,000) X 10/55* = $43,636 *n(n +1) , where n = estimated useful life 2 Declining-Balance The declining-balance method utilizes a depreciation rate that is some multiple of the straight-line method. One popular method is twice the straight-line rate. Thus, in the example the 10-year asset life would translate into a 20% declining rate. Beginning of the Year Book Value $260,000 $208,000 Rate on Declining Balance 20% 20%
Year 1 Year 2
X X X
= = =
Depreciation Charge $52,000 $41,600
12. (L.O. 4)Group and composite methods involve averaging the service life of many assets and applying depreciation as though a single unit existed. The composite approach refers to a collection of dissimilar assets, whereas the group approach refers to a collection of assets with similar characteristics. The method of computation for group or composite is essentially the same: find an average and depreciate on that basis. For example, the following assets would have the following composite rate and life. Original Cost $ 65,000 148,000 95,000 $308,000 Salvage Value $ 5,000 18,000 11,000 $34,000 Depreciable Cost $ 60,000 130,000 84,000 $274,000 Useful Life 5 yrs. 10 yrs. 12 yrs. Depreciation (Straight-Line) $12,000 13,000 7,000 $32,000
Asset A B C
Composite Depreciation Rate: Composite Life:
$32,000/308,000 10.39% = $274,000/32,000 = 8.56 years
These assets will be depreciated at $32,000 per year for 8.56 years. 13. In general, depreciation should be based on the number of months an asset is used during an accounting period. If a decreasing charge depreciation method is used for assets purchased during an accounting period, a slight modification is appropriate. When this situation occurs, determine depreciation expense for the full year and prorate the expense between the two periods involved. This process continues throughout the service life of the asset. For example, assume an asset with a 5-year useful life and a depreciable cost of $45,000 is purchased on October 1. At the end of the first year the depreciation charge under sum-of-the-years'-digits method would be: 1st Full Year: 2nd Full Year: Year 1 (10/1 to 12/31): Year 2: $45,000 X 5/15 = $15,000 $45,000 X 4/15 = $12,000 $15,000 X 1/4 = $3,750. ($15,000 X 3/4) + ($12,000 X 1/4) $11,250 + $3,000 = $14,250
14. Depreciation expense reduces net income for the accounting period in which it is recorded even though a current cash outflow is not involved. However, depreciation should not be considered a source of cash. Cash is generated by revenues, not accounting procedures. 15. The estimates involved in the depreciation process are sometimes subject to revision as a result of unanticipated occurrences. Such revisions are classified as changes in accounting estimates and should be handled in the current and prospective periods. Impairments 16. (L.O. 5)The process to determine an impairment loss is (a) review events for possible impairment, (b) if events indicate impairment, determine if the sum of the expected future net cash flows is less than the carrying amount, if so, then (c) the loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of the asset is greater than the fair value of the asset. If an impaired asset is expected to be disposed of, it should be recorded at the lower of cost or net realizable value, and it is not depreciated.
17. If an impairment loss is recorded and if an asset is considered long-lived, the reduced carrying amount is now considered its new cost basis and no write-up is allowed. If an impaired asset is held for disposal, it can be written up or down as long as the write-up is never greater than the carrying amount of the asset at the time of the original impairment. Depletion 18. (L.O. 6)Depletion refers to the process of recording the consumption of natural resources (wasting assets). The depletion base for natural resources includes acquisition costs, exploration costs, intangible development costs, and restoration costs reduced by any residual value related to the land. Tangible assets used in extracting natural resources are normally set up in a separate account and depreciated individually. 19. Depletion is normally based on the number of units extracted during the period, which corresponds to the activity depreciation method discussed earlier. A major problem one faces when computing depletion is estimating recoverable reserves. 20. Unique problems, uncommon to most other types of assets, seem to exist in depletion accounting. Not infrequently, the estimate of recoverable reserves has to be changed either because new information has become available or because production processes have become more sophisticated. 21. A company may gradually distribute to stockholders their capital investments by paying liquidating dividends--dividends greater than the amount of accumulated net income. Because the dividend is a return of the investor's original contribution, the company should debit Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par instead of Retained Earnings. 22. Companies in the oil and gas industry may currently account for the costs using either the successful-efforts approach or the full-cost approach. Both successful efforts and full cost are historical cost approaches. The SEC once favored the development of a valuebased accounting method for companies in the oil and gas industry known as Reserve Recognition Accounting (RRA). However, the development of RRA was abandoned and the SEC has asked the FASB to develop a comprehensive package of value-based disclosures for oil and gas producers.
Presentation and Analysis 23. (L.O. 7)The basis for valuing property, plant, equipment, and natural resources, which is normally historical cost, should be disclosed in the financial statements along with any pledges, liens, and other commitments related to these assets. Normally, assets not used in a productive capacity (held for future use or as an investment) should be segregated from assets used in operations and classified as "Other Assets." Financial statement disclosures related to depreciation include: a. Depreciation expense for the period. b. Balances of major classes of depreciable assets, by nature and function. c. Accumulated depreciation, either by major classes of depreciable assets or in total. d. A general description of the method or methods used in computing depreciation with respect to major classes of depreciable assets. 24. The asset turnover ratio measures how efficiently a company uses its assets to generate sales. It is computed by dividing net sales by average total assets. The profit margin on sales ratios (net income divided by net sales) is another measure for analyzing the use of property, plant, and equipment. The rate of return on assets (net income divided by average total assets) measures the return a company achieves through use of its assets. Income Tax Depreciation *25. (L.O. 8)For assets acquired before 1981, depreciation for income tax purposes is based on straight-line, sum-of-the-years'-digits, and declining-balance methods. For assets purchased in the years 1981 through 1986 the Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) of depreciation is used. A Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System, known as MACRS, was enacted by Congress in the Tax Reform Act of 1986. It applies to depreciable assets placed in service in 1987 and later. Three major differences exist between the computation of depreciation under MACRS and GAAP: (a) a mandated tax life, which is generally shorter than the economic life, (b) cost recovery on an accelerated basis, and (c) an assigned salvage value of zero. MACRS assigns assets to property classes which indicate the depreciable tax life of the assets in each class. The depreciable tax lives range from 3-year property to 39-year property.