to Research
Tools
Methods collect data
Sources of collecting
Qualitative
Detailed
Data
description
Unpredictable
Used in earlier
phases of research
The design
emerges as the
study unfolds.
Researcher is the
Quantitative
Classify features,
Data
count them, and
construct statistical
Predictable
Used in later phases
of research
Carefully designed
before data is
collected.
Researcher uses
tools to collect
Types of sources
Your sources, or the materials which
supply you information, are your resources
Two major types:
Secondary sources
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Secondary sources are ones that interpret
primary sources
Usually published works
For Example
Published statistics, Journal articles,
books about a poem/novel/play, radio or
television documentaries, conference proceedings
Secondary Sources
Advantages
Cheap and
accessible especially a
University Library
Often the only
resource, for
example historical
documents
Only way to
Disadvantages
Biases and
inaccuracies can
not be checked
Published
statistics often
raise more
questions than
they answer
Primary sources
Any type of research that you go out and
collect yourself
An original document or account that is not
about another document or account but
stands on its own
For Example
surveys, interviews, observations,
focus groups, case studies, novel, poem,
play,
diary, letter, data from a research
study
PRIMARY SOURCES
Advantages
Up- to-date so
more reliable
Allows
generalization to a
larger population
Verifiable by
replication and requestioning of
interviewees/
Disadvantages
Time-consuming
Results may be
over generalized
Researchers can
use a biased
methodology
It is impossible to
check if people are
responding
Research & the Internet
Great tool but
challenging
Why do we need to
evaluate web sources?
Virtually any person
can publish almost
anything on the
Research and the Internet
While researching the
Internet evaluate the web
source:
1.
Use search engines to
your advantage
2.
Identify the web site
3.
Examine for credibility
4.
5.
Determine depth and
scope of information
Assess date of
Search engines
A search engine is an Internet
tool that locates web pages
and sorts them according to
specified keywords.
Use search engines to your
advantage
Pick the right search engine
for your research needs.
Refine your search whenever
possible.
Identify the web site
Assess the authorship,
content, and purpose of the
web site.
Can be difficult to separate
advertising from accurate
information.
Whenever possible, try to
locate the home page.
.org .gov
.com .net
Examine for credibility
Credibility may be
compromised by
purposeful misinformation
or by unintentional
neglect
Locate the name of the
sites creator & his/her
credentials
Examine for credibility
Does the source have a
political or business agenda?
Is it affiliated with some
university?
Is the site sponsored by a
political or business group? If
so, what can you find out
about that group?
Can you locate any of the
source material?
How reliable is this material?
Are there links to other
credible sites with additional
Determine depth and
sthe material show signs of
cope of information
Does
research, such as references to other
sources, hyperlinks, footnotes, or a
reference page?
Does the author consider opposing
points of view?
How closely does the site really
match the information for which you
are searching?
Determine depth and
scope of information
Are there a lot of flashy pictures, colors,
animated images, and logos designed
to attract attention? Do these eyecatching images distract you from
noticing a lack of credible information?
Do they disguise an attempt to get you
to buy something?
Assess date of information
Can you locate a date the
web on page?
Does the site clearly state a
date of creation or a date for
the most recent update?
More importantly, does the
information cover recent
changes or advances in the
field or topic you are
researching?
What is sampling?
The process of selecting
a number of individuals
for a study in such a way
that the individuals
represent the larger
group from which they
were selected
Sample
the representatives selected for a
study whose characteristics
exemplify the larger group from
which they were selected
Factors to Consider in Sample Design
Research objectives
Degree of accuracy
Resources
Time frame
Knowledge of
target population
Research scope
Statistical analysis needs
1.
Simple random sampling:
the process of selecting a sample
that allows individual in the defined
population to have an equal and
independent chance of being selected
for the sample
2. Stratified sampling:
the process of selecting a sample that
allows identified subgroups in the
defined population to be represented
in the same proportion that they exist
in the population
Most common Types of
Primary Research
Observations
Interviews
Surveys/ Questionnaires
Observations
Select a site
Identify who and what to observe, when
and for how long
Design observational protocol for
recording notes
Record aspects - setting, activities,
behaviour, your reactions
Observations
ADVANTAGES
Actual situation or
behaviour (not selfreport)
DISADVANTAGES
Observer bias
Coding problem
Can adapt to
events as they
occur
Real-time (avoids
memory decay)
Can be labour
intensive and
costly
Interview
ADVANTA
GES
Highly valid and reliable
information
Can learn the
perspectives of
participants
Knowledge of
participants can reveal
new insights for the
study
Can be flexible with client
Interview
DISADVANTAGE
S
May be difficult to find willing participants
Requires skills in interviewing and
listening
Note-taking or video/audio recording can
be a problem
Interviewee may intentionally or
unintentionally leave out salient topics
information
Data organization can be challenging
How to Conduct an Interview
Setting up the interview
Preparing for the interview
Meeting with your
interviewee
Following up on your
interview
Types of Topics in Questions
Behaviors
Opinions/values
Feelings
Knowledge
Sensory
Background/demographics
How to ask good questions
Ask leading questions rather than asking
yes or no questions
Do you think there is a parking problem on
campus? (Yes or no question)
What is your view on the parking situation on
campus? (leading question)
Wording of Questions
Open-ended
Neutral
Clearly
Asked one at a time
Carefully constructed
Meeting the Interviewee
Always bring a stiff-backed notebook and
several trustworthy writing instruments
If you wish to tape-record your interview,
always ask before doing so
Keep notes on the interview, but make
sure that you are still talking to the
interviewee, not just scribbling
Bring your prepared list of questions to the
interview
Try to stick to the topic at hand, but be
Understanding feedback
During the interview, summarize the answers
back to the interviewee to make sure you
understand his/her answer
Q: What is your view on the parking situation on
campus?
A: I think it is a problem, because there are more
cars than parking spaces.
Paraphrase response: So you believe there are
not enough parking spaces for the cars on
campus.
Following up the Interview
Always be sure to thank your interviewee,
orally and in writing
Write your results soon after the interview
while they are fresh in your mind
Let your interviewee review your findings
in order to confirm that you have
represented him/her accurately
Interview Sheet
Lahore School of
Economics
ACADEMIC
WRITING
INTERVIEW SHEET