Review Final 12/7
What will the final be?
Four identification questionsyou will
have six options to choose from, each
answer should be around one paragraph
One essay questionyou will have two
questions to choose from, and your essay
should be long enough to answer the
question (approx three typed pages or six
written pages is my best estimate)
Start with the AUDEINCE
Audience
To give a good public speech you need to
start by thinking about your audience
What kinds of things should you think
about?
Who is in it?
What do they need to hear?
What do they want to hear?
How can you best make the case to them?
Making choices about your
audience
A public speech is about connecting with
your audience in the way that they will
listen to and process what you are saying
Because you can connect with an
audience in different ways, you have a
number of choices to make
You should have two considerations in this
regardone is about effectiveness and
one is about ethics
Audience-effectiveness
Consider the rhetorical situation, which
is made up of:
The audience (composition, dispositions,
pre-existing attitudes)
The exigence, or the problem that you are
addressing (why are they listening)
Constraints (what prevents them from
taking up your point of view)
Elements of a Speech
Intro
Thesis
Signposting
Body
Conclusion
An Introduction Serves Three
Purposes
An intro should hook your audiences
attention, for example with a joke or funny
story related to the topic, an interesting
fact, or a story that frames the topic
It should establish why your audience
should be interested in the topic and
define common ground
It should provide a clear thesis and
preview (or signpost) what you are going
to do in your speechit provides memory
A Thesis
Needs to be reducible to one sentence
Needs to be clearly stated as such, with
some accompanying marker (I would like
to argue that)
Needs to meet the same basic burdens as
a topicstrong, embodying an element of
controversy, able to be supported, and
linked to the associated evidence in the
body
Signposting
Your introduction should preview the basic
points that your will make in the body of
the speech
To signpost you need some language that
cues your audience to what you are doing
for example, there should be a BCS
playoff system for three reasons
An effective signpost contains language
that reappears later in the speech in
introducing each of the main points and
Body
Pick a structure that best fits your material
this is a time where choices can make a
big difference in how your material comes
across
The organization of the main points needs
to follow a coherent patternthe point of
organization is that your audience can
expect what is coming and remember it
more effectively
Kinds of Organiztion
Sequential
Problem/Solution
Topical
Spatial
Conclusion
Recaps the arguments that you made
May or may not tie in to the introduction,
but should give the sense that the speech
has come full circle
Should include either a call for action or at
least a call for change in thinkingthis is a
great place to make a plea based on
pathos*
Proofs and Persuasion
Why proofs?
Consider Aristotles definition of rhetoric,
which is the faculty for observing the
available means of persuasion any given
situation
Proofs are the means by which we might
sway an audiencethat is, to demonstrate
to them why they should change their
actions or opinions
Three Kinds of Proofs
Ethosproofs about the character or
credibility of the speaker
Pathosproofs that draw on emotion
Logosproofs that draw on reason
***all good speech employs elements of
each of the three***
(Ehtos)What does this mean
practically?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Control the audiences perception of your
motivation for addressing the topic
Concise and well organized phrases help
to demonstrate competence
Do not compound mistakes in delivery
Create identificationsfor example talk
about personal effects of the issue and
connect them with the audience
Your mental disposition is important--use
Pathos
The issue is what sentiments that you can
draw on or employ in your speech that
allow you to use the audiences emotional
dispositions as an aid to persuasion
For example: beer and car ads
The guiding questions should be: how
does the audience feel about the topic,
how might they react to my arguments,
and how can you make their emotional
dispositions reinforce your position
Pathostools at your disposal
Pathos is all about implicit connections
Intrinsic sympathetic connectionsoften
through a story that personalizes
Careful use of negative connectionsfear
(example: your brain on drugs), anxiety
(argumentum ad wallet), or threats
(arguments for the war on terror).
Logos
What is an argument again?
What is involved in an argument situation
in public speech?
How can you use better logic? By
understanding the structure of arguments.
What is an argument?
The Simplest Definition
The simplest definition of an argument is a
claim with support and an implication
A Claim is what you are trying to establish
Support backs up the claim in some ways
An Implication tells your audience what to
do with the claim and support
What is an argument?
The Simplest Definition
All of these are not always present in most
arguments
Sometimes they are simply omitted
Other times they are enthymemes
Elements of an Argumentative
Situation in Public Speech
A Problem or a Question
Clashthere have to be multiple sides
Entails Riskboth conceptual and
personal
Calls for Judgment
Commonalitywe have to agree to
disagree
The Demand for an Inference
Inference
An is inference a jump or a leap that you
take on the basis of data or support for an
argument
It makes a connection between the
elements of an argument and the
conclusion that it calls for
You already know this from the stuff on
induction and deductionbut it is not
always so clear in everyday argument
Types of Inferences
From Examples
From Form
From Causes
From Analogy
From Signs
From Authority
Verbal Style
A trope is a deviation from direct or
straightforward language that plays on the
meaning of words by substituting them or
attaching them to a word in unexpected
ways
Examples:
all hands on deck
the foot of a mountain
take your seats
Verbal Style
In rhetoric we call verbal style
ornamentation
Ornamentation adds interesting visual
images, pleasing arrangements of sounds
and concepts to speech to make it
persuasive
Examples
Verbal Style
Today we will focus on figures
Some of the most effective figures are rely
on repetition, omission or changes in word
order
For example, anaphora is a figure that
repeats the use of a word or phrase at the
beginning of successive lines or clauses
Verbal StyleAnaphora
This royal throne of kings, this sceptred
isle,
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
This other Eden, demi-paradise,
This fortress built by Nature for herself
Against infection and the hand of war,
This happy breed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea
John of Gaunt in Shakespeare's Richard II
(2.1.40-51; 57-60)
Verbal StyleAnadiplosis
Repeats the last word of a phrase or clause
at the beginning of the next:
...a man could stand and see the whole wide
reach of the blue Atlantic. But he stayed
ashore. He stayed ashore and plowed, and
drilled his rows...
Charles Bruce,
Biography
Useful because it demonstrates and
emphasizes continuity
Verbal StyleWord Order
Anastrophe: inverts word order for the
sake of emphasis
So, for example, in the Big Lebowski,
instead of saying: Little Lebowski Urban
Achievers, yes, we are proud of all of
them
Maude says: Little Lebowski Urban
Achievers, yes, proud we are of all of them
The change in expected order both
Verbal StyleWord Order
Enallage: changes the word order to tweak
the grammar while maintaining the same
semantic contents
The classic example is the passive voice:
Yes I ate a double down to
The double down was eaten by me
Usually not preferred, but the passive
voice can be used to defer responsibility
Verbal StyleOmission
Omission is called ellipsis
Ellipsis occurs when you intentionally
leave a word out on the bet that the
audience will fill it in
"The average person thinks he isn't."
Father Larry Lorenzoni
Verbal StyleParallelism
Repeats structural elements of phrases to
create a sense of unity or contiguity
For example, isocolon which employs
similar sentence structure, length and
rhythm:
No ifs, ands or buts
many will be called, but few will be
chosen
Verbal StyleParallelism
Klimax orders words or ideas so that
they reach a climax; the words or ideas
should build toward a conclusion
The key is to build progressively to a
satisfying end, and to build rich implicit
connections between the terms
Here is a good example of structural
parallelism, isocolon, and klimax:
Rosa sat so that Martin could walk, Martin
Verbal StyleContrast
Often times, isocolons are also contrasts,
often they rely on antithesis
An antithesis sets up two or more phrases
and joins them (sometimes with a
conjunction) into two opposed but related
ideas
Classic antithesis
Verbal StyleContrast
The keys to a good contrast statement are
balance (the sides should be symmetrical
around a fulcrum) and contrast (two or
more ideas should be properly opposed
it was the best of times, it was the worst
of times
Verbal StyleContrast
Finally, Chiasmus
One of the classicsit means a crossing
and is named after the Greek Letter Chi
The form is AB, BA, which written in verse
form allows you to draw an X
AB
BA
The most famous example
Tropes of Contiguity,
Substitution and Comparison
Metonymy
Metaphor
Simile
Catachresis
Metonymy I
A metonymy is based on an accidental
(that is not inevitable or intended
connection between things)
There are a number of different kinds:
Synechdoche
Part for Whole (coke for all soft drinks, lend
me your ears, or I could use an extra pair of
eyeballs on this paper
Whole for Part (Americans are stupid)
Metonymy II
Contiguity
The suits on Wall Street walked off with
most of our savings.
Cause for Effect
Hes an accident waiting to happen
Metaphor I
Metaphor comes from the Greek root word
Pherein which means to carry or bear
A Metaphor carries or bears the meaning
from one term to another
Examples: It is an oven outside or Justin
Bieber is a is a monster
What makes a good metaphor
Metaphor I
What makes a good metaphor (start at :20)
What makes a bad metaphor
What is the difference?
What are the big metaphors that we rely on
in everyday life?
Simile
A simile is like a metaphor in that it
transports meaning from one thing to
another, but it makes the comparison
explicit, often by using like or as
Some examples: sharks, D squared (1:29)
When would you use a metaphor and
when would you use a simile?
Catachresis
Catachresis is a harsh or abusive
metaphor
Though it is subjective, a catachresis
stretches a metaphor to a limit that makes
it seem almost implausible
"The moon was full. The moon was so
bloated it was about to tip over. Imagine
awakening to find the moon flat on its face
on the bathroom floor, like the late Elvis
Presley, poisoned by banana splits. It was