Presidency
I. Wilson's Woodrow Wilson
A. Personal Characteristics
1. Scholar and idealist
2. Aloof and, at times, distant.
3. Resistant to disagreeable advice.
4. Preferred flattery to cold logic
5. Often a poor judge of men.
6. Intrigued with ideas, bored with details
7. Stern Presbyterian
8. Believed States Rights' best protector of American citizens from abuses of
Big
business, etc.
First Term
I. Wilsonian Democracy
Text: Somewhat critical of Wilson. Argues that Wilson backed away from
New Freedom and instead extended powers of federal government. By end of
first term Wilson had greatly expanded role of federal government.
LWE: True but Wilson did achieve much of his agenda while accommodating
the Progressives and "discovering" the need to exert executive powers.
A. Domestic Reform
1. Use of Executive Power to effect reform
a. Concentration of executive powers
b. Expanded powers of most loyal Cabinet officers
1. Personal with House but caused some resentment by other Cabinet
Officers by failure to trust or confide.
c. Approached Presidency, Congress, and Party like a PM in British System
d. Wilson viewed President as initiator of legislation and responsible for
passage. 1st Pres. to directly address Congress to initiate
legislation
since Jefferson.
e. Unnatural politician, but capable of leading party.
f. Forged coalition of democratic conservatives and progressives.
2. Staff and Cabinet
a. Bryan as Sec. of State
1. Moralist and Protector of Agrarian interests
b. William McAdoo (Sec of Treasurey)
1. Progressive business. Believed in regulation of business.
2., Party insider
c. Albert Burleson (Postmaster General)
1. Southern Democrat popular on Capital Hill
d. Joseph Tumulty (Pres. Private Sec)
1. Irishman wise to ways of political machines and journalists
e. Col. Edward House
1. Urbane Texan
2. House similar to today's Chief of Staff. Wilson's confidante and
liason with Party, Congress, and Foreign Heads of State
3. House responsible for assembling Wilson's Cabinet
4. Practically Wilson's architect and employer of Foreign Policy
5. Highly personal relationship with House, but distant with other
Cabinet Officers.
2. Reform
3. Tariffs
a. Tariff of 1913 (Underwood-Simmons Tariff)
1. Reduced swollen schedules to improve international trade.
2. Did not abandon Protectionism - only reformed it.
3. Pleased Democrates (and free traders) without compromising areas
needing Protection.
4. Result
a. Created image of Wilson as an achiever and put him in firm
control of the Democratic Party.
b. Caused serious revenue shortage ($100,000,000)
b. Taxes
1. Problem of revenues
2. Graduated Income Tax
a. Allowed by 16th Amendment
b. 1% - 6% graduated rates.
c. Results
Text: Shifted tax burden to wealthy
LWE: Very political. Framers did not intend to use device to
redistribute wealth. Purely a way to make up revenue
shortfall. Made up revenue shortfall.
*c. Banking
1. Federal Reserve Act
a. Criticisms of Banking and Currency
1. Concentration of Wealth
a. Too much control in hands of few.
b. Louis Brandeis. Other People's Money
1. Chief proponent of Banking Reform
2. Concerned that small banks deposited money in
larger banks; those in larger banks, and so on.
3. Net result was that small banking conglomerations
controlled all local banks, interest rates, health of
local
banks, etc. (Money Trust)
c. Westerners and Southeners (Farming interests)
1. Assumed a Banker's Conspiracy working against
their interests
Why? Spring Planting loans and terms controlled by
Banks. Banks controlled by those who
controlled
cost to farmers (Equipment, Planting
needs such as
fertilizer shipped on RRs with high
rates) After
harvests, prices controlled by
Bankning interests to
keep prices down.
c. Economic Problems
3
economies
times,
became more
1. Recession required easier money to remedy
recession but Banks tended to become more
conservative and unwilling to infuse local
with easy money.
2. Values of currency based on Bank Notes. Bank
Notes value based on loan payments. In hard
Banks simply made it harder because it
conservative.
3. Federal Government needed more control over
both Banking and Currency.
d. Banking too centralized
1. Because of centralized control, banks could not
respond to financial crises.
2. Too many small, weak, independent banks with
limited resources.
3. Especially troublesome in agricultural areas.
b. Bankers' Solution
1. Central Bank authorized by Federal Government but
privately controlled.
2. Banking control of currency.
c. Wilson's Solution
*Greatly influenced by Bryan (representing farming interests)
1. Forced Congress to remain in session through Summer (and
D.C. can be hot in Summer.)
2. Federal Reserve Act (1913)
a. Federal control of banking system.
b. 12 Regional Banks capable of addressing regional
needs.
c. % of assets from member banks held in reserve
1. Prevented runs
2. Distributed additional funds to local banks as
needed. (Local loans at rates set by regional
board)
d. Replacement of US Bank Notes with Federal
Reserve Notes.
1. Control of distribution in hands of Federal Reserve
2. Backed by Government
e. Ability to divert funds to areas of need.
1. Ex. Farming disasters or industrial relief
f. Federal Reserve Board
1. Appointed by President
2. All national banks forced to join
3. Smaller banks invited
4. Set strict rules of membership
a. Sound banking practices
d. Results
to
1. Elastic currency
2. Improved distribution of money throughout US
3. Aided new enterprises (and therefore competition)
4. Broke strangle-hold of "Money Men" (ex. JP. Morgan)
4. Laid foundation of control that allowed FDR to gain control
of Banking Crisis in 1932.
*5. Most important legislation of Wilson's Presidency
d. Wilson moves from breaking trusts to regulation
1. From very beginning Wilson moved from Democratic position to
Progressive position.
a. Consistent with his belief in executive powers
b. Impact of Southern Heritage
1. Believed that States could best protect against abuses of big
business.
2. But naturally averse to large, runaway accummulation of
power by big business.
c. Wilson became increasingly willing to use Presidential Powers
regulate big business.
2. Regulation of Big Business
a. Federal Trade Commission Act
1. Five man commission
a. appointed by President
2. Power to oversee corporations engaged in interstate
commerce.
3. Allowed businesses to regulate themselves
a. Published rules and ruled on requests.
b. Business could "test" actions beforehand.
4. Increased federal government's regulatory powers.
b. Clayton Anti-Trust Act
1. Called by Samuel Gompers, "labor's charter of freedom."
2. Provided organized labor with necessary legislation to
balance bargaining position.
3. Strikes, pickets, and boycotts legalized, but not
guaranteed free from federal interference.
4. Strengthened rules against corporate price-fixing.
c. Results
1. Failed to restrict business conduct to the extent Wilson had
sought or protection that Labour Wanted
but
2. Checked worse abused of Monopolies and gave executive
power to at forecfully if necessary.
e. Social Justice
1. Extension of Federal Power (Creation of Modern State)
a. Keating Owens Act (1916)
1. First federal law regulating child labor
2. Prevents interstate transportation of goods produced by
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children.
*3. Later invalidated, but indicates how federal government
can exercise its powers.
b. Use of federal taxes as form of social control.
*1. Established precedence for federal powers
a. Later used in federal war on organized crime.
2. Federal funding of Agricultural Extension, Roads,
Vocational Schools.
f. Wilson's Mixed record of Progressivism (Social Justice)
1. Rejection of Women's' Suffrage as states' rights issue
2. Refused to use federal powers to end Segregation (to placate
Southern cabinet Members)
3. Appointment of Brandeis as Supreme Court Justice
1. No friend of big-business
2. First Jew on Supreme Court
4. Tax credits for farmers and establishment of Farm Land Bank
5. Extended Workman's Comp. to Federal employees.
6. Vetoes bill requiring literacy tests for immigrants.
7. Establishment of Farm Land Bank for farmers
II. Foreign Affairs
A. Moral Imperative
1. Belief in the Superiority of American Capitalism and Democracy
2. Willingness to interfere in foreign affairs to extend benefits of American
system overseas.
B. Rejected Big Stick Policy and Deplored Dollar Diplomacy, but did encourage
extension of American interests overseas through economic incentives.
1. Considered Dollar Diplomacy to be attack on sovcereignyty of weak
nations.
C. Wm. Jennings Bryan appointed Secretary of State
1. Actually performed better than one would have expected.
2. Kept a cool head even during European crisis.
3. Jennings did use office, however, to pay-off some political debts
*4. Eventually resigned over tougher US attitude towards Germany following
Lusitania
4. Both Bryan and Wilson mistrusted career Military and Navy, and State
Department.
a. Considered them cynical and conventional.
5. "Grape-Juice" Diplomacy
a. Jennings, a Prohibitionists criticized for refusal to serve alcoholic
beverages at diplomatic functions.
6. Policies and Program
a. Negotiated treaties with Great Britain, France, Italy, and 27 other lesser
powers.
b. Commitment to international arbitration and conventions to reduce
chance of war and reducte armaments.
D. Wilson acted as own Secretary of State in important matters.
1. Col. House was Wilson's personal envoy.
B. US Hegemony in Western Hemisphere
1. Latin America and Caribbean
a. Wilson an outspoken foe of imperialism, yet carried out more armed
interventions in Latin America than predecessors.
1. Interventions dubbed "Missionary Imperialism."
b. Interventions
1. Haiti, Dominican Republic, Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands),
Nicaragua
c. Wilson failed to appreciate the extent of anti-American feeling in
Caribbean and Latin America
1. Small nations turbelent and impoverished.
2. Wilson unwilling to allow US assumption of their debt.
3. Unwilling to accept turmoil of revolution that might endanger US
doimination of Caribbean.
4. Only policy left available was armed intervension.
2. Mexico
a. Taft policy: Hands-off over unstable governments and Mexican dictators
b. Wilsonian idealism unwilling to ignore Mexican problem
(Moralistic Policy)
c. Mexican Social Problem
1. Late 19th C. Disctatorial Government
a. Supported by large landowners, army, hierarchy of the Church,
foreign investors.
b. Oppressed. Included landless, uneucated, imposerished peasants
(peons), and workers.
d. Political Problem
1. 1911 Revolution
a. Porfiro Daz (driven to exile by Madero)
2. 1913. coup d'tat
a. Francisco Madero (deposed and killed by Huerta)
a. Idealistically promised democratic reforms
b. Threatened to use American investments to solve Mexican
poverty and system of peonage.
1. Major American investments in Mexico (@$1 billion)
d. Victoriano Huerta
1. Full-blooded Indian, but spokesman for propertied for
classes.
2. Established military dictatorship.
3. Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's government.
*Considered Huerta to just be an assassin.
a. Hopped to topple unstable (and immoral) government
b. Probably actually strengthened Huerta
c. Wilson criticized at home and labeled impracticable abroad.
1. Huerta supported by American Oil Interests
4. Diplomatic and economic support for Venustiano Carranza
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(opponent of Huerta)
a. Consitutionalists
3. Dolphin Incident (1914)
a. American Sailors arrested in Mexican port and briefly detained.
b. Wilson used opportunity to send ships to Mexico
c. Blockaded German ships
1. German-American tensions already rising over Mexico
d. Captured Veracruz
e. US and Mexico on brink of war
4. Carranza (Constitutionalist) forces Huerta to flee
c. Wilson reluctantly recognizes Carranza's government de facto
a. Carranza rejects US interference and advice.
d. US and Francesco "Pancho" Villa
1. Panco Villa
a. Illiterate
b. Opposed to Carranza
c. Determined to stir trouble between US and Mexico
d. Briefly favored by Wilson but actions against US turned Wilson
against him.
e. Held northern "gringo" in contempt
2. Villa's intent was to cause war between US and Mexico
a. Raids (1916)
1. Santa Ysabel (18 Americans killed in Mexico)
2. Columbus, NM (17 Americans killed)
3. American outrage
a. Newspapers stirred up fever for intervention
4. Pershing Expedition (1916 - 1917)
a. Wilson authorizes Expeditionary Force
1. 12,000 men
2. Empowered to find and destroy Villa
3. Pushed 300 miles into Mexico
4. Mexico initially approved expedition, but fearful of
American interests and penetration requested
withdrawal.
b. Results
1. Little achieved.
2. Carranza angered at US and pro-German supporter
3. Villa still defiant
4. Mexican revolution not yet over.
5. Wilson worried about Europe
6. Wilson reluctantly grants de jure recognition to Mexico
7. Untenable situation
a. Meixico unstabhle
b. Wilson confused by Mexico and unsure how to force
reform
c. Distaste for Mexico's troubles nd way of changing
government.
3. Panama Canal Toll Crisis
a. Anglo-American relations
C. Pacific and Asia
1. Problem of maintaining Open Door Policy in China
a. Rejection of Taft's Dollar Diplomacy
b. Recognized China
c. Withdrew US from Chinese RR consortium
2. Japanese Problem
a. Nativist sentiments in California over "Yellow Peril."
1. Unwarranted belief that Japanese would push whites off American
West Coast.
b. Increasing Japanese aggression in Pacific and Asia
1. Japanese policy of expansion and economic growth
c. US concern over Japanese aggresiveness in China and Pacific.
1. US assuming greater role protecting Open Door in China against
Japanese economic and naval imperialism.
D. Anglo-American relations over Panama
1. US benefited from favorable canal rates.
2. Treaties had guaranteed common rates for all British users of Canal.
3. US unable to allow international arbitration - certain to lose.
4. Embarrassing problem for Wilson because of his rhetoric about superiority
of American morality.
5. Wilson pushed toll exemptions through Congress and cemented USBritish relations.
E. Europe and American "Neutrality"
1. Origins of Great War (in Europe)
a. Historigraphical sequence before and after Fay
1. Sydney B. Fay. Origins of the Great War
a. Underlying Causes of the War
1. System of alliances
a. Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy)
1. Italy switched sides at war
2. Central Powers
a. Germany and Austro-Hungary
b. Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia)
1. Italy joined allies at onset of war.
2. Militarism
a. Problems of mobilization, and Schlieffen Plan
3. Nationalism
4. Economic Imperialism
5. Newspaper press
b. Immediate Causes of War
1. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (Aug. 1914)
2. Progress and Conduct of The Great War (1914 - 1916)
9
a. Failure of Schlieffen Plan
b. Emergence of Trench Warfare and War of Attrition
1. "Lost Generation"
2. Casualties
LWE: SEE Almanac
c. First Total War
1. Effect on Home Fronts
2. Weapons of Mass Destruction
a. Air Planes and Derrigibles
b. Submarines
c. Massive Guns
d. Gas Warfare
e. Machine Guns and Tanks
d. British dependence on American goods
e. German Naval and Diplomatic strategy
1. Strangle Britain.
a. U-Boat Blockade
2. Problems of U-boat warfare
a. Violated naval traditions (no way to address international
law)
b. Inability to 'save' victims
c. Policy of sinking, not taking ships.
3. Definitions of Neutrality
a. German definition
1. Blockade of Britain (British waters in War Zone)
a. Ships entering War Zone considered belligerents
2. Cut-off all trade to Britain
3. Argued US could sell products to and through Germany
4. All items considered contraband.
5. Ships sending "contraband" to British subject to attack.
b. British definition
1. German blockade an act of belligerency
2. US must sell products to Britain
3. American refusals equated to belligerency
4. Powerful British Navy claims right to seize and take goods
intended for Britain.
5. Very careful not to list contraband products of American
products that were fragile. Ex. Southern Cotton. South in a
recession.
c. American definition
1. Right to trade with whom US pleases.
5. American "Neutrality"
a. Economic considerations
1. LWE find trade figures for US and Germany and US and
Britain
2. LWE. List US and British connections and Germany's
problems.
3. US dependence upon British markets and Navy.
b. US floated war loans and credits to all belligerents, but
considerably more to Britain and esp. France.
1. War credits and loans
a. Allies $2.3 billion.
b. German. $27 million
b. False Isolationism and False Neutrality
c. Wilson's Policy
1. Public and policy neutrality.
2. Personal affinity for Britain
a. Admirer of British political and cultural tradition.
b. Anglo-American economic ties.
c. Compatible Anglo-American imperial interests
1. US and Germany certain to compete in S. Pacific
3. Find common ground to accommodate US and British maritime
interests.
1. Two choices
a. Embargo Britain
1. Economically impossible
b. Continue to trade with Britain and risk war with Germany
4. Pro-British 'Neutrality'
a. American support of Allies
5. Progressive Idealism
a. Belief that US could have positive effect upon Europe
1. Only way to be involved in peace was to be involved in the
war.
d. German reaction
1. U-Boat blockade
a. Considered "ungentlemanly"
b. Before 1917 attacked ships clearly carrying "war material"
c. Problems of "war materials"
1. Definition of contraband
a. Not only munitions
2. Passenger ships
2. Lusitania (May 7, 1915)
a. 1198 deaths
b. Passengers and Munitions
c. American outrage
e. German caution
1. Germany backs-off U-Boat warfare
2. German caution predicated upon US neutrality.
11
f. Wilson proposed to negotiate a peace.
1. Failed
III. Election of 1916 (Re-election)
A. Both Nomination and Election dominated by War Issue
B. Issues
1. Opponents (Peace Faction)
a. German-Americans and Irish Americans
1. Irish revolt (1916)
b. Mid-West Farmers opposed to war on grounds that it was product of bigbusiness.
c. Workers. Many had affinity for emerging socialism and concern for
working class in Germany.
d. Pacifists
e. Isolationists
f. Those who argued that US unprepared.
2. Belligerents
a. Business
b. Militarists
c. Imperialists
d. Nationalists
C. Other Issues
1. Tariff, Mexico, railroad regulation
a. But main issue neutrality
D. Democratic slogan: "He kept us out of war."
1. Not embraced by Wilson but neither did he oppose it.
2. Paid Democratic ad in NY Times (11/97)
"You are working:
-Not Fighting!
Alive and Happy:
-Not Cannon Fodder!
Wilson and Peace with Honor?
or
Hughes with Roosevelt and War?
E. Election Results
1. Narrow victory for Wilson.
2. Evidence of strong pro-war sentiment.
IV. US enters the Great War
A. Wilson's Maneuvers
1. Anti-German sentiment
a. Charges of Barbarism
1. Atrocities at sea and on land.
2. American leadership in construction of new world order.
a. International conventions.
b. International league of nations.
1. Led my the morally noble US.
2. Idea of "Peace Without Victory"
a. Appealed to notion of negotiated peace.
(Rejected by Germany in 1916)
3. Action following Bolshevik Revolution
a. Russia removed from Allied cause allowing Germany to shift to Western
Front. Americans must move quickly.
b. Russian Revolution allowed Wilson to join allies without association
with
old imperial monarchy.
B. Successful British Propaganda campaign and policies.
1. British censorship of all war news out of Britain
a. American reporters tended to write favorably of British position
b. British effectively used American affinity for Anglo-Saxon heritage.
c. German atrocities exaggerated; allied atrocities hushed-up.
d. British careful to pay for cargoes confiscated.
e. British violation of American mails (censorship) and blacklisting of
American business doing business with Germany.
C. Germany attempts to gain upper hand before US entrance into war.
1. Resumption of U-Boat attacks (Jan. 31, 1917)
a. Ample warnings to Americans of intent.
b. Extension of policy
1. Germany declared intention to sink all ships in the War Zone
c. Carefully calculated move by Germany
2. Major assaults in France (1916-1917).
3. American Response: Arming of merchant ships
4. Result
a. With resumption of U-boat warfare and extension of War Zone policy,
Germany guaranteed American involvement.
b. Germany's only chance was to deliver knockout blow before American
entry.
c. US and Germany severed relations (Feb. 3, 1917)
C. Zimmermann Telegram (written 1/16/97; revealed to US 3/1/17)
1. German Foreign Secretary (Zimmermann) cabled German Minister in Mexico
2. In event of War, Germany should seek relationship with Mexico
3. Offered possibility of German support for Mexico to reclaim Texas, New
Mexico, and Arizona.
4. Intercepted by British and turned over the US
5. Published March 3/1/17
D. American reactions
1. Pushed over edge by Zimmermann Note
2. Californians also upset by German overtures to Japan
a. Specter of "Yellow Peril"
3. Armed Neutrality
a. Executive action (rejected by Congress)
E. Declaration of War
1. Strong minority opposition in Senate
a. Let by LaFollette
1. Led filibuster.
13
2. Declaration finally passed on April 4, 1917
a. Senate (April 4, 1917) 82 to 6
b. House (April 6, 1917) 373 to to
F. American Preparedness (or lack of)
*Mobilization urgent but erratic
1. Regular Army. Small and unprepared.
FIND FIGURES
2. Americans traditionally opposed to large standing armies and military
traditions.
2. Selective Service Act (1917)
a. Conscription of 3 million men
b. Wide opposition (considered threat to democracy)
c. Age
19, then 21, then by 1918 - 18.
3. Recruitment
a. Added another 2 million.
V. American Involvement in World War I
A. US in the War
1. Allied Reaction
a. US welcomed as saviors
2. US Naval impact
a. Combined Anglo-British efforts ended U-boat threat
1. Battleships equipped with catapulted planes (sub hunters)
2. Aggressive hunting of subs.
3. Convoys protected by destoyers.
b. Results
1. Sinkings
TEXT
April 1917. 900,000 tons
December 1917. 350000 tons
October 1918. 112,000 tons
TEXT: American involvement was the difference.
LWE: True, but German economy already showing strain.
3. Land War
a. Germany concentrating forces on Western Front.
b. British and French manpower almost exhausted.
c. American Expeditionary Force
1. Under Gen. John J. Pershing
2. Professionally trained
3. Command structure (independent of European Commands)
d. Impact on war.
1. Forced lines back to Germany. (Meusse-Argonne Offensive; mid
1918)
a. Costly but crucial
2. German push exhausted Germany's ability to continue.
4. Armistice
a. Nov. 11, 1918
b. German "stab in the back" myth
c. Reality of Armistice
*Define difference of armistice and surrender
** LWE opinion. Seeds of WWII sewn in WWI
B. Home Front
1. America's powerful position.
2. No experience or plan
2. Home Front in Total War
a. Financing the War
1. Total cost of war @$32 billion dollars
*Compare to estimates of other wars before WWI
2. Sources
a. War (Liberty) Bonds ($23 Billion)
b. Taxes ($10 Billion)
TEXT: Keynsian Concept. Note that "ease" of raising revenues
reinforced Progressive notion that national financial problems
could be
solved by heavier taxation. Major implications for New
Deal, WWII,
and Great New Society.
b. Organizing for war
*No national inventory, plans of organization, mobilizaton or
priorities for war materials.
1. War Boards
a. Progressive Dream
1. War Industries Board
a. Cooperation of government, industry, and labor
b. Rationalization of resources for Managed Economy
c. Paradox of suspension of regulatory laws in exchange
of
economic efficiency.
1. Danger. Government become handmaiden of
industry, not industry the handmaiden of
government.
2. Aspects of Managed Economies
a. Fortunate examples
1. Socialism
2. Democratic Socialism
3. Mixed economy
a. Unfortunate
1. Corporatism and Nationalism combined.
*Suspension of political freedoms for some other
national (economic) ideal.
a. Fascism
1. Italian model
2. National Socialists
2. Explain differences between Corporatism/Fascism
and Socialism, Communism, and Managed
Economies.
15
b. Application of "Scientific Management" to conduct of war.
c. Concept of Managed Economy
1. Define
2. Rationalization of resources
3. Use and extension of government regulatory and
information
gathering resources.
4. Administration heavily bureaucratized.
5. Examples
a. Railroad War Board
b. Fuel Administration
c. Food Led Administration
1. by Hoover
2. Provided much needed relief to Allies.
d. National War Labor Board
1. Unified various agencies that prevented labor
disturbances
2. Progenitor of US Employment Service.
d. Successes
1. No American rationing in WWI
2. Improved knowledge and experience with federal
governmental administration.
3. Official recognition of labor rights (National Labor Board)
a. Examples
1. 8 hr day
2. Equal Pay for Women
3. Recognition of unions
4. Improved employment opportunities for women.
5. Business came to recognize that better treatment of labor
did not mean that business would be hurt.
3. Failures
a. Runaway inflation
1. Seriously hurt wage earners
2. Benefited speculators and large corporations
a. Note that corporate America only mad concessions
to labor while profits were excessive.
3. Farmers prospered during war, but erroneously
encouraged to overproduce. Poor management.
b. Inconsistent and inefficient organization.
1. Confused administrations
c. Mixed production.
c. Propaganda
1. Importance of propaganda in Total War
2. Committee on Public Information
a. Employment of journalists, commercial artists, etc. to produce
prowar propaganda.
1. Posters, literature, early movies, etc.
2. "Voluntary" censorship and "Voluntary" positive reporting
a. Newspapers, etc. wrote positive news
1. Failure to cooperate could be officially and
unofficially punished.
a. Unofficially. Loss of key advertising.
b. Officially. Charges of Sedition
3. Germans presented as "Barbaric Huns"
b. Public Information Speakers
3. Legal Repression
a. Real challenge to American Civil Liberties
1. Espionage Act (1917)
*a. Extended to allow Postmaster to ban "seditious" mail.
2. Sabotage and Sedition Acts (1918)
a. Extension of Expionage Act.
*b. Virtually made it impossible to criticize President,
policies of government, or conduct of the war.
b. Targets
1. German-Americans who had opposed the War
2. Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)
a. Identified with International Socialism (naively
considered to primarily German)
*Note problem that War created for Socialists in Europe.
American socialists slow to drop international ideal.
4. Frighted Conformity (Americanism)
a. Perhaps most dangerous
b. Revealed dark side of American character that would dominate
c. Vigilantism
d. Nativism ("Americanism")
1. Organizations
a. American Protective League
1. Self-styles protectors of American security
Search for Social Unity?
Vigilante enforcement of conformity and appearance.
2. Community pressure to conform and act in some
required manner.
b. National Security League
c. Boy Spies of America
d. American Defense Society.
e. Common victims
1. Immigrants, Jews
2. German-Americans
a. Harassment and outright abuse
1. Ranged form revulsion against all things German
to firings and even accusations of spying.
(Similar to witch-hunts of Fr. Revo. Salem, and
McCarthyism)
f. Explanations
17
1. Text: Search for social unity?
2. Serious challenge to Plural society.
3. Presaged darkside of American society.
a. Drives toward social conformity.
e.
VI. Treaty of Versailles and the Lost Peace
A. Liberal Peace Program
1. Supported by US
2. Four common principles
a. Substitution of international comity for the alliance system.
b. Substitution of arbitration for armaments
c. Institution of self-government among all peoples
d. Avoidance of seizures of territorites and demands of reparations.
3. Problems
a. US entered war as an "associate" not an ally.
b. European allies already had formed agreements regarding breakup of
German Empire and borders after victory.
c. British mainly interested in portecting Empire
d. French planning to seek reparations
e. Wilson promoting the ideal of self-determination that would have farreaching results on Imperialism and Colonialism as well as in the
Balkans and
Baltic.
f. Bolshevik Revolution in Russia had created unsettled situtation in Eastern
Europe and encouraged clash between Socialists and Conservatives in
Europe.
g. War in Europe had created political, social, and economic instabilty
within all the belligerent nations.
h. Strong US opposition to Wilson in US.
1. Opposition to entanglement in European affairs.
2. Opposition from Protectionists
3. Isolationists
4. Rabid anti-Germanists
4. Wilson's Fourteen Points
1. Proposed by Wlson (Jan. 8, 1918)
2. HANDOUT
3. Main points
a. Five Broad points
1. Open Diplomacy
2. Free Use of the Seas in War and Peace
3. Reduction of Armaments
4. Removal of Barriers to Free Trade
5. Impartical adjustment of colonial claims
b. Eight points regarding national Self-Determeination
1. German evacuation of Russian territory
2. Restoration of Belgian independence
3. Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
4. Establishment of an independent Poland
5 Autonomous development of each of the peoples of AustoHundary and European Turkey.
c. Final and Main point
1. Creation of an international "general assembly of nations."
4. European Reaction
a. Resistance and rejection of specific points
ex. British opposition to free seas
ex. French desire for reparations
5. American reactions
a. Republicans (led by Lodge and Roosevelt) opposed
1. T. Roosevelt. Settlement should be dictated by "the hammer of
guns not the clicking of typewriters."
b. Election of 1918 (Congressional Elections)
1. Democrats worried about Republican opposition to plan.
2. Wilson allowed his plan to become partisan issue and play into
hands all foes to US involvement in European War.
3. Republicans regained control of Congress.
B. Armistice
1. Situation
a. Allies driving through German Lines in Fall 1918
b. German High Command urges Chancellor to propose armistice and take
advantage of Wilson's 14 Points program.
c. France and Britain worried about westward surge of Bolshevism and
possible emergence of Socialism in Germany.
d. Zionists, Arabs, British and French over odds about future of Palestine
and portions of Ottoman Empire.
1. Allies had made both Arabs and Jews believe Palestine would be
theirs in exchange for support against the Central Powers.
e. Allies still pushed hard for German admission of defeat.
f. German High Command worked hard to blame defeat on civilian
government.
g. World in Turmoil
1. Russian Civil War
2. Japanese aggressiveness in Pacific and Asia
3. India rising up against British rule.
4. Disintegration of Ottoman Empire
g. Nationalism in resurgence everywhere (esp. Eastern Europe)
h. All Europeans exhausted.
i. General belief among British and French that Germany should assume
war
responsibility and war debt (reparations)
j. Conservative reaction to severe soci-economic changes in Europe.
1. Effect of WWI on Europe
a. Social
1. Class
2. Gender (America and Europe)
19
b. Political
1. Extension of franchise
2. Expression of National aspirations
c. Economic
2. Paris Peace Conference (Actually held at Versailles)
a. American delegation led by Wilson himself.
1. First American President to go overseas on a diplomatic mission.
b. Delegation
1. Wilson, Sec. of State Lansing, Col. House, Gen. Tasker ( a military
expert), and Henry White (career diplomat).
2. No Republicans
c. Immediate Problems
1. Lack of Repoublican Support
2. Lack of Popular Support.
a. Wilson was not good with journalists and his official press
representative (George Creel) had irritated my during war with
his
heavy-handed censorship approach.
3. Allied insistence on secret meetings
a. Seemingly compromised the first of Wilson's principles.
b. American Press did not help explain the need for flexibiity to
American people. Wilson painted as puppet of Allied Powers.
4. Wilson misled by large crowds greeting his arrival in Paris.Actually,
most Europeans more enthousiastic about their own national goals.
5. Who would be involved?
a. Over 30 nations sent delegations
b. Aspiring national entities all seeking recognition
c. Great Powers hoping to exclude Central Powers and emerging
nations.
d. Bolsheviks not invited
e. Central Powers excluded from process
1. Germany branded settlement as the Diktat
6. Separate Treaties
a. Versailles - Germany
b. St. Germain - Austrians
c. Grand Trianon - Hungarians
d. Srves - Turks
7. Failed Idealism
a. Idealists had hoped for "open" discussions on a new post-war
Europe.
b. Instead Secret meetings prevailed and increasingly the Paris
Peace Conference looked like the old Congress of Vienna
except
this time the Big Three were:
a. Britain - Lloyd George
b. France - Clemenceau
c. US. - Wilson.
8. Process
their
by
a. Compromise between idealism of Wilson and material
considerations (reparations, security, territory) of Britain and
France.
b. Small nations excluded from decisions
c. Technical experts excluded form decisions.
1. Economists, historians, political scientists, etc. send reports
and recommendations to leaders only to learn later that
advice had be ignored.
2. Further weakened confidence in settlement after these
academics learned that their efforts had been ignored.
3. All took great criticism of the process
ex. Keynes blamed Economic Crisis of 1920s and 1930s
(rightfully) on reparations agreement.
ex. Wilson accused with failure to achieve lasting peace
not understanding difficulties of national sentiment vs
imperialism.
ex. Reports of Wilson delegation on hands and knees one
night trying to find a certain emerging nation of a
map.
in
sealed
d. Versailles Settlement
1. Austro-Hungary totally dismembered (Balkanization)
a. Creating more national problems than had existed before
b. Peace conference did not adequately address process for
establishing rules or boundaries of nationa self-determination
nations that emerged from settlement.
ex. Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, etc.
c. Austria (German speaking) forbidden to unite with Germany.
d. Kingdom of Hungary carved out of Magyar speaking area
e. Czechoslovakia created out of Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia,
Sudetenland (German), and Ruthenia (Ukranians)
f. Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
g. Romania obtained Transylvania (formerly Hungarian and
Bessarabian, and part of tsarist Russia)
2. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania carved from Russian Lands taken by
Germany in Brest-Litovsk Treaty between Germany and Russia.
3. Poland recreated back to 18th C status
a. Creation of "Polish Corridor" to Baltic. Indefensible Polish
border to either German or Russian aggression.
1. Thin strip sepa rating East Prussia from Germany.
b. Danzig made a free city
c. Germans having to cross "Polish Corridor" had to do so in
trains.
d. The new Poland populated with Poles, Germans, Ukranians, and
Jews.
4. Italy received Trieste and Trentino
a. Both included large Slavic and German speaking minorities.
21
coal
create
b. (1924) received former Hungarian poert of Fiume (in Croatia)
1. Wilson had originally promised Italian control of Brenner
Pass (Austria). Italians took Fiume by force (de facto) in
1918. Fiume granted to Italy in 1924.
c. Allies reneged on promise to grant Dalmatia (Yugoslav state)
creating tensions between Italy and Yugoslavs.
d. Italians stormed out of negotiations more than once.
e. Wilson and Italians on uneasy terms.
5. France
a. Recovered Alsace-Lorraine (lost to Germany in 1870)
b. French intensions
1. Clemenceau hoped to eventually annex the Saar Basin in
Germany to compensate German destruction of French
mines
2. Detachment of German lands west of Rhine River and
Rhineland Republic that would be French satellite.
a. Military buffer
c. Actual settlement
1. Saar separated from Germany as ward of League of
Nations.
to
a new
Moslems
of 1912-1913.
determination
a. Plebiscite would determine future in 15 years
2. Saar coal output to go to France for 10 years.
3. Rhineland remained German but demilitarized and subject
Allied occupation.
6. Greece (Treaty of Srves) and Turkey
a. Received Thrace (from Turkey)
b. Allowed to occupy for five years the territories around Ismir in
western Anatolia.
*c. Before treaty effected Mustafa Kemal revolted against Turkish
government in Instanbul and galvanized Turkinsh people into
national entity.
d. Kemal drives out Greeks and forms new Turkish Republic with
capital in Ankara.
e. New Turkey recognized by Allies in 1923 (Treaty of Lausanne)
1. Turks allowed to recover both eatern Thrace and Izmir from
Greeece.
2. Orthodox Christians living in Turkey exhanged for
living in Greek territory gained in Balkan Wars
a. More than 2 million people exchanged.
7. Mandates
a. Each Mandate assigned by League of Nations to a Mandate
Power who had duty of preparing population for selfand ultimate independence.
1. *For the most part the Mandate Powers did initiate process
for self-determination, but it was very uneven and not
always
declaration
evident.
2. Concept of Mandates a Wilsonian Compromise
a. Britain and Japan unwilling to cede territory won from
Germany in Africa and Pacific respectively.
b. Wilson convinces them to accept Mandates instead of
outright transfer of colonies.
b. Arab lands of fomer Ottoman Empire and German colonies
distributed as Mandates.
c. Middle East
1. Britain obtained Mandates for Palestine, Transjordan, and
Iraq (Mesopotamia).
2. France received Mandates for Syria and Lebanon
d. Africa
1. Britain over German East Africa (Tanganyika)
2. Union of South Africa received Mandate for South-West
Africa.
3. Britain and France received divided Mandate for Cameroon
and Togo.
e. Pacific
1. Australia received Mandate for German portions of New
Guinea.
2. Japan received Mandates for most other German islands.
*Japanese treated their Mandates as Annexations of
territory and fortified newly gained territory.
8. Japan
a. Accepted Mandated territory in exchange for outright
of racial equality between Europeans and Japanese.
b. Took advantage of confusion in Paris to advance claims in
China
1. Assumed German leasehold at Kiaochow and German
privileges in Shantung Peninsula.
9. Punishment of Germany
a. Assigned War Guilt
b. Merchant ships handed over to Allies
1. Depressed shipbuilding industry in Britain
c. Coal deliveries from Saar shipped to France, Italy, and Belgium
for 10 years without just compensation.
d. War Reparations assigned to Allies
1. $5 Billion annual payment until final payment assigned in
international court of arbitration. (Final bill set at $120
billion)
a. Caused serious German resentments
b. Inflated prices unnaturally and devalued Germany
currency.
c. Destabilized European economy.
d. Violation of US conditions of entry into war that Allies
23
not seek reparations beyond civilian damages.
d. Paradox
1. Germany unable to pay without becoming
economically stronger.
2. France unwilling to allow Germany to become
strong enough to make payments.
3. Near Communist revolution in Germany in 1918
2. German Army reduced to 100,000 men
a. Complicated by need in Germany to control civil
disturbances and emergence of paramilitary
organizations.
3. Rhineland demilitarized Occupied by Allies
a. Resulted in German military concept of Blitzkreig to
avoid War of Attrition and barriers
4. German Navy seriously curtailed
5. Germany forbidden to develop Submarines or Airforce
10. Russia kept out of settlement
a. US and Japan interfered in Russian affairs (Archangel and
Vladivostok)
1. US and British supported anto-Bolsheviks in European
Russia
2. Japanese committed army to Siberia with eye to conquest.
11. Other conditions and problems
a. Wilson and Lloyd George pledged special security treatly to
France in the event of German attack.
1. Clemenceau recognized (even if Wilson did not) that the US
Senate would reject this agreement and, therefore, France
would be able to occupy German territory indefinitely.
b. Disunified China virtually helpless against Japanese.
c. Japan enters into separate secret treaties with France and Britain
to divide German colonial holdings.
d. US and Japan enter secret agreements to uphold Open Door
policy in China.
1. US forced to recogniae Japan's special interest in Chinese
provinces adjoining Japanese holdings.
12. League of Nations
a. Structure
1. Geneva (Switzerland) the capital
2. Administration
a. Permanent Secretatiat and Assembly
1. One vote per member state in Assembly
2. Germany and Russia allowed to enter at later date.
b. Supreme Council
1. 'Big Five'
a. US (initially), Britain, Italy, Japan, France
2. Four Seats held in rotation by lesser powers.
b. Success and Failure
1. Successes
a. Ideal basis that would later form concept for UN
b. Recognized the longstanding frustration of emerging
nationalities in eastern and central Europe.
c. Set-up international Court of Arbitration to settle
disputes.
1. Packed police power but did have power of
economic embargo
2. Failure
a. Inability and failure to enforce decisions and terms of
Versailles Settlement.
1. Economic sanctions unevenly and unforcefully
applied.
*b. US rejected membership, virtually ensuring failure of
League.
c. With US non-entry, Britain withdrew leaving France
with dominant poisiton in League.
1. France too concerned about humiliation of
Germany.
d. Japan virtually unchecked in Pacific.
e. Humiliated Germany eventually came to ignore League
and hold it in comtempt.
*f. League not a superstate. Capable only of
recommending, not compelling compliance.
3. Struggle for Ratification and Wilson's Failure
a. American's initially favorable.
b. Versailles settlement largely along lines of 14 Points.
c. Senate attitude
1. 96 Senators
a. Opposition
1. 49 Republicans (led by Henry Cabot Lodge) opposed to
specific terms.
a. Only 14 totally opposed.
*b. 35 willing to work to accept treaty.
1. Demanded League be separated from Treaty
2. 23 with strong reservations
3. 12 with mild reservation.
2. Only 4 Democratic opponents
b. Supporters
1. 47 Democrats
c. Reservations
1. Argued Congress should be sole judge of US Mandates or
admission into League of Nations.
2. Argued that US should have complete control over its tariff
and immigration policies, and reassert Monroe Doctrine
25
in
regards to Western Hemisphere.
3. Argued US not bound by votes of colonial members of
Assembly.
4. Opposed US commitments to League to enforce decisions.
2. 2/3 majority needed to ratify (64 Senators)
*a. Coalition of Democrats and moderate Republicans possible if
President was deliberate and willing to compromise.
d. Wilson's inflexibility
1. Wilson unwilling to compromise. In the abstract Wilson probably
right, but in reality compromise was necessary.
2. Wilson refused to separate League from Treaty
3. Tried to turn ratification into partisan issue (with only a minority).
4. Wilson chastised (unwisely) Congress for lack of support.
5. Public growing increasingly bored with dispute.
a. Wartime unity dissolving.
b. Economic issues distracted most Americans from international
debate.
e. Lodge and Wilson
1. Lodge
a.. Organized the Rebublican opposition.
b. Packed the Foreign Relations Committee with opponents to
treaty.
c. Against US involvement in League
d. Ruthless, mean, and capable of running Senate.
e. Hated Wilson
f. Controlled huge Irish-American and Italian-American vote
a. Irish anti-British
b. Italians miffed at Wilson over settlement
6. Wilson
a. Considered Lodge immoral and opposition unnecessary
b. Refused to amend Treaty to address reservations.
c. Believed changes would require renegotiation of treaty
1. A belief not shared by British, French, or State Department.
f. Wilson's collapse
a. Speaking tour (1919)
1. Took position straight to heart of isolationist sentiment
2. Favorably received by crowds, but this only stiffened resistence
in Senate that considered this interference in constituencies.
3. Very streneous tour
b. Wilson's stroke (Cerebral Thrombosis) (Sept. 25, 1919).
c. Debilitated Presidency
1. Paralyzed left side
2.Thickened speech.
3. Disabled for 2 months.
a. Limited to no more that 1 or 2 hrs of work a day after 6
mos.
b. Unable to discharge duties of office for six weeks.
4. Ms. Wilson's role and rumors
5. Personality change
a. Petulant, suspiciaous, emotional.
b. Unable to make decisions and unable to assess men or
situations.
g. Defeat of Treaty and Election of 1920
1. Neither Lodge nor Wilson could muster 2/3 votes.
2. Compromises attempted but neither Democrats nor Coalitionists
could effect a compromise.
a. Compromise and support offered by 20 million Americans,
British and French press, and Wilson supporters.
3. Wilson refused compromise (probably caused by ill health).
4. Wilson demanded that Democrats take treaty to the people in
next General Election.
5. Democrats mustered enough Senate votes to reject compromise,
but could not muster votes to pass Treaty.
5. Election of 1920
Democratic
Candidate
James M. Cox
9,130,328 votes
127 electoral
votes
Position
Position
16,143,407 votes
404 electoral votes
Supported League
with some
hesitation
Repbulican
Candicate
Warren G. Harding
Supported by
Republican
isolationists and
internationalists
alike.
Deliberately vague
on League
Considered election
as repudiation of
treaty.
4. Result and Assessment
a. American rejection of League affected entire world
b. Without US, League at best an instrument of preserving status quo.
c. WIthout US, League unable to become international force for Wilson's
ideals.
d. With US rejection the world's greatest democracy seemed to have
rejected
its role in the world.
*e. US withdrew from world stage at same moment that Bolshevism and
Fascism emerged as solution to world's problems.
VII. Troubled Domestic Affairs
27
II. Foreign Affairs
A. Moral Imperative
B. Rejection of Big Stick Policy and Deplores Dollar Diplomacy
C. US Hegemony in Western Hemisphere
1. Latin America and Caribbean
2. Mexico
a. Pershing Expedition (1916 - 1917)
3. Panama Canal Toll Crisis
D. Pacific and Asia
1. Problem of maintaining Open Door Policy in China
2. Japanese Problem
E. Anglo-American relations over Panama
F. Europe and American "Neutrality"
1. Origins of Great War (in Europe)
a. Historigraphy
b. Underlying Causes of the War
1. System of alliances
a. Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy)
b. Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia)
2. Militarism
3. Nationalism
4. Economic Imperialism
5. Newspaper press
c. Immediate Causes of War
2. Progress and Conduct of The Great War (1914 - 1916)
a. Failure of Schlieffen Plan
b. Emergence of Trench Warfare and War of Attrition
1. "Lost Generation"
c. First Total War
d. German Naval and Diplomatic strategy
3. Definitions of Neutrality
a. German definition
b. British definition
c. American definition
4. American "Neutrality"
a. U-Boat blockade
b. Lusitania (May 7, 1915)
III. Election of 1916 (Re-election)
A. Issues
IV. US enters the Great War
A. Wilson's Maneuvers
B. Successful British Propaganda campaign and policies.
C. Germany attempts to gain upper hand before US entrance into war.
1. Resumption of U-Boat attacks (Jan. 31, 1917)
2. Major assaults in France (1916-1917).
D. Zimmermann Telegram
E. Declaration of War
V. American Involvement in World War I
A. US in the War
29
1. Allied Reaction
2. US Naval impact
3. Land War
4. Armistice
B. Home Front
1. Home Front in Total War
a. Financing the War
1. War (Liberty) Bonds ($23 Billion)
2. Taxes ($10 Billion)
b. Organizing for war
1. War Boards
a. War Industries Board
2. Managed Economies
3. Propaganda
a. Committee on Public Information
b. Legal Repression
c. Frightened Conformity (Americanism)
VI. Treaty of Versailles and the Lost Peace
A. Wilson's Fourteen Points
1. Main points
a. Five Broad points
1. Open Diplomacy
2. Free Use of the Seas in War and Peace
3. Reduction of Armaments
4. Removal of Barriers to Free Trade
5. Impartical adjustment of colonial claims
b. Eight points regarding national Self-Determeination
1. German evacuation of Russian territory
2. Restoration of Belgian independence
3. Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
4. Establishment of an independent Poland
5 Autonomous development of each of the peoples of AustoHundary and European Turkey.
c. Final and Main point
1. Creation of an international "general assembly of nations."
2. European Reaction
3. American reactions
B. Armistice
1. Paris Peace Conference
2. Versailles Settlement
C. Struggle for Ratification and Wilson's Failure
1. Lodge vs. Wilson
D. Defeat of Treaty and Election of 1920
Democratic
Candidate
Position
Repbulican
Candicate
Position
James M. Cox
9,130,328 votes
127 electoral votes
Supported League
with some hesitation
Warren G. Harding
Deliberately vague on
League
16,143,407 votes
404 electoral votes
Supported by
Republican
isolationists and
internationalists alike.
Considered election
as repudiation of
treaty.