III EXAM REVIEW
Biome area of similar vegetation, soil climate and
topography
Low latitude rainforest very diverse, containing
large numbers of plant and animal species. Broadleaf
evergreen trees dominate the vegetation cover (up to 4
layers shade tolerance).
The rainforest climate is wet all year or has a short dry
season, high productivity, nutrients/carbon in
aboveground bioamass, oxisols (soil order consisting
of very old, highly weathered soils of low latitudes,
with an oxic horizon and low base status)
Ie: Amazon, Congo basin, SE Asia
Adaptations: drip-tips, epiphytes & lianas, smooth
bark, buttresses, prop and stilt roots
Monsoon (tropical deciduous forest) open cover of
deciduous trees that shed their leaves during a
pronounced dry season. It occurs in the wet-dry
tropical climate (bordering tropical rainforests,
transitional to less wet climates) ranging from South
America and Southern Asia Mix of evergreen and
deciduous trees.
Less diversity, lower biomass than tropical rainforest, 2
layers of vegetation and dense understory
Subtropical evergreen forest includes both
broadleaf and needleleaf types and is found in moist
subtropical climate regions of south eastern North
America and Southeast Asia. Most of this formation
has been lost to cultivation
Few species, lianas and epiphytes abundant, two layers
Ie: Magnolia Forests, SE Pine forest (Florida)
Midlatitude deciduous forest (broadleaf, mixed
deciduous) consists largely of tall trees that drop their
leaves during the cold season (otherwise form a dese
canopy EXCEPT Eucalyptus of Australia, NW US
evergreen. SE US, pine forest). It is characteristic of
the marine west-coast and moist continental climates
Extensive on the North Hemisphere continents
Midlatitude forests cannot contain broadleaf
evergreens
Midlatitude Needleleaf forest includes boreal and
coastal forest. Boreal forest (Taiga) stretches across
the northern reaches of North America and Eurasia.
Coastal forest is restricted to the coast ranges of the
Pacific Northwest region (dogwood found here).
Severe mid latitude climates. Evergreen deciduous
(larch), small deciduous stands of birch alder aspen
Matches the polar front jet stream
Schlerophyll forest dominated by low trees with
thick leathery leaves that are well-adapted to the long
summer drought of the Mediterranean climate.
Southern Californias chaparral (dense fire adapted
shrubs), found on coast-range slopes, is a form of
sclerophyll scrub, open grassy woodland
Small areas in mid-latitudes, fire adapted, root
sprouters, seed scarification, flammable compounds
Wet winter, broadleaf, evergreen
Tropical Savanna
Savanna Biome adapted to a strong wet-dry
annual cycle. Grazing by large mammals and periodic
burning in the dry season maintain the openness of the
savanna by suppressing tree seedlings
Tall grasses (Perennial bunchgrasses), big
game, Serengeti Plains
Lots of grazing, browsing, fire controlled trees,
and shrubs
Grassland Biome includes tall-grass prairie
and short-grass prairie (steppe). Tall-grass prairie
provides rich agricultural land suited to cultivation and
cropping. Short-grass prairie occupies vast regions of
semidesert and is suited to grazing
Limited by precipitation, and fire frequency
Perennials, migratory ungulates (burrowers)
Biomass mostly underground
Ie: WY, SD, Mongolia (Genghis Khan)
Desert Biome includes semidesert and dry desert and
occupies the tropical, subtropical, and midlatitude dry
climates. Desert plants vary widely in appearance and
in adaptation to the dry environment
Variable vegetation, bare ground
Drought resistant plants and drought evading plants
(Aloe trees)
Shrubs and succulents
Animals are nocturnal crepuscular burrowers
(Kangaroo rats, Javelina, Coati, Desert cottontail)
Tundra Biome includes low plants that are adapted
to survival through a harsh, cold winter. They grow,
bloom, and set seed during a short summer thaw
Cold desert of grassland
Moisture scarce, short growing season
Dwarf grasses, forbs, lichens, migratory birds, animals
Ie: Denali National Park, Alaska
Landform the surface features of the land, individual
topographic feature on the surface of the earth, varying
in size
Ie: San Andreas Fault (plate tectonics)
Composition of Earths crust oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, and 5% or less of iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium and others
Less than 1% of the earths volume, .4% weight, and 840 miles thick
EXAM III REVIEW
Igneous Rocks come from a molten rock source
Intrusive cooled below earths surface, cools
slowly causing large crystals
ie: granite, diorite, gabbro
Extrusive comes from spewed lava, cooled
on the earths surface, rapid cooling
Crystals are too small to see with the naked eye
ie: Basalt, Rhyolite, Andesite
Sedimentary deposited on surface, rounded grains,
layering (strata)
Chemical form from precipitation of soluble
materials (saltwater)
Organic tissues of plants and animals (peat
layer in bog or marsh)
Solid peat or coal
Liquids petroleum
Gases natural gas
Mechanical weathering, clastic (formed
from fragments of other rocks)
ie: sandstone, shale, conglomerate
Metamorphic formed from preexisting (igneous or
sedimentary) rocks by intense heat and pressure, which
alter rock structure and chemical composition,
Rocks recrystallize and are layered
Form deep in the earth
Ie: gneiss results from the exposure of elastic
sedimentary or intrusive igneous rocks to heat and
pressure (shale slate schist; sandstone
quartzite; limestone marble)
Syncline the down-fold of a ridge-and-valley
landscape, the dip, due to weak rock
Anticline the up-folds of a ridge-and-valley
landscape, the bump, due to resistant rock
Evidence for Plate Tectonics locations of
earthquakes and volcanoes worldwide outline the
tectonic plates
Distribution of fossils and rocks globally indicates
Pangaea,
Continental plates are still moving
Oceanic crust is younger than continental crust from
the mid-oceanic ridge
Faults fractures created in the brittle rocks of the
earths crust, as different parts of the crust move in
different directions.
Rocks break apart and move along a fault plane.
Horizontal and/or vertical movement
Normal Normal faults are caused by
extension and produce down-dropped blocks (grabens)
and up-thrown blocks (horsts)
the crust on one side of a normal fault is raised relative
to the other. This creates a steep, straight, cliff-like
feature called a fault scarp. Fault scarps range in
height from a few meters to few hundred meters
Strike-slip very low scarp if any, thin fault
line, sometimes marked by a narrow trench or rift
Thrust involve mostly horizontal movement.
One slice of rock rides over the adjacent ground
surface. A thrust slice mat be up to 50 km wide
Reverse the fault plane along a reverse fault
is inclined such that one side rides up over the other.
Reverse faults produce fault scarps similar to those of
normal faults. But because the scarp tends to be
overhanging, theres a much greater risk of a landslide
Asthenosphere Plastic, or soft layer below the
lithosphere
Lithosphere the solid, brittle outermost layer of the
Earth. It includes the crust, the cooler, brittle upper
part of the mantle, and plates
Oceanic crust consists entirely of silicates of
magnesium and iron (mafic rocks)
Continental crust much thicker than oceanic
Upper zone includes rocks that are less
dense and are composed of silicates of aluminum,
sodium, potassium, and calcium (felsic rocks)
Lower zone denser mafic rock
Age of the crust increases with distance from
oceanic ridges
Oldest ocean crust near the trenches
Subduction the process in which one plate is carried
beneath another, occurs at converging boundaries
Collision ie: Andes in South America, collision
between a continental and oceanic plate
Uplift, volcanism, and a mantle plume
Oceanic ridges spreading centers, mid-ocean ridges,
included in ocean basins
Oceanic trenches ocean crust sliding beneath
continental crust, subduction, near continents and
island chains, included in active continental margins
Mantle plume Hawaii, islands get older towards the
Northwest because the plate is moving that way
Lava magma after it has reached the earths surface
EXAM III REVIEW
Cryptodome created by magma intrusion, Mt. St.
Helens was exposed in 1980 (the buldge, moved 65 ft
over 20 days)
Magma intrusion magma cooling slowly below the
earths surface
Nuees Ardentes glowing clouds, hot, incandescent
mixtures of volcanic fragments and gases
Sweep close along to the ground and move at 450 mph
Lethal and destructive (Pompeii)
Pyroclastic flow - fire-broken, fragmentation of
magma and rock by explosive volcanic activity
Pumice forms from rapid cooling, ash and
lapilli/block/bombs are released
Debris flow/avalanche (lahar)
Form of mudflow/debris flow, caused by rapid
precipitation or snow melt
Follows stream courses, rapidly
In N. Fork Toutle River Valley, occurred about 10
seconds after 5.1 quake
Largest lahar recorded in history, debris moving 155180 mph covering 24 sq. miles, 150 ft. deep
Melted glacial material, tephra, pumice
Lateral blast (pyroclastic) uncorking of pressure,
rock ash and hot gases released at speeds up to 670
mph, cryptodome exposed
Lahar rapid volcanic mudflow of ash and pyroclastic
materials
Lava dome formed from mafic lava (basalt) which is
not very viscous and holds little gas. This allows the
lava to spread out in thin layers during eruptions and
form large broadly rounded domes
Tephra erupted particles of different sizes
Stratovolcanoes tall, steep cones built of layers of
felsic lava and volcanic ash. Felsic magma can contain
gases under high pressure, so felsic eruptions are often
explosive
ie: Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Rainer, Mt. Shasta
Sheild volcanoes large basaltic volcanoes that are
broadly rounded domes with gentle slopes. Most of
the lava flows from fissures (long gaping cracks) on
the flanks of the volcano
ie: Hawaii
Tsunami/Seismic wave waves with very long wave
lengths
Causes sudden rise or fall in the earths crust
under or near the ocean, earthquakes, volcanoes,
mudslides
Cause of the 2004, 2011 tsunamis earthquakes
Run-up how high the wave rises, depends on
distance and depth
Inundation the maximum horizontal
distance of the wave
wavelength/period wavelength is greater
than 300 miles, period between 10 mins and two hours
Water Depth:Wavelength ratio very small
Energy dissipates slowly from source speed
affected by water depth (shallow water has slow
speeds, same energy taller wave)
Weathering processes that cause rock to disintegrate
Mass Wasting gravity induced downhill movement
of soil, rocks, regolith (scarification human caused)
Soil creep (extremely slow downhill
movement of soil and regolith), earthflow, mudflow,
debris flows
Alluvial fan mudflow from a mountain flowing in a
fanlike pattern
Solifluction lobes/terraces are formed when
waterlogged soil moves downhill to make tongue
shaped mounds. Terraces are formed with large
amounts of the soil moves slowly on the surface,
making small meter-high ridges.
Mima mound These are small mounds made of
gravel that can be found throughout the United States,
often in massive patches in the West. Currently, there
is no known cause of these mounds, but the theories
point towards past volcanic activity.
Chemical Weathering
Hydrolysis and Oxidation changes strong
rocks into weak ones, rich in clay minerals and oxides,
warm humid climates (rust)
Acid action carbonic acid, especially
carbonate rocks (limestone/marble)
Mechanical/physical weathering produces regolith
(fractured rock)
Frost/ice Action type of physical weathering
describing feature influenced by frost/ice
Talus cones caused by frost action,
Patterned ground (created by frozen
ground), Needle Ice, Pingo the earth pushed
upward from expanded frozen under-ground
Felsenmeer boulder fields
Salt crystal weathering Niche formation occurs in
dry climate, ground water moves through via capillary
action, salt is deposited, crystals grow
Root wedging The roots of plants can break rocks,
causing weathering. This is physical weathering.
Wind weathering
Unloading large igneous rocks form underground
Alluvium any stream-laid sediment deposit found in
a stream channel and in low parts of a stream valley
subject to flooding
Colluvium deposit of sediment or rock particles
accumulating from overland flow at the base of a slope
and originating from higher slopes where sheet erosion
is in progress
EXAM III REVIEW
Slump Waterlogged soil collapses on the edge of a
dirt cliff
Earthflow moderately rapid downhill flowage of
masses of water-saturated soil, regolith, or weak shale,
typically forming a step-like terrace at the top and a
bulging toe at the base
Exfoliation process of removal of overlying rock
load from bedrock by processes of denudation,
accompanied by expansion and often leading to the
development of sheeting structure
Scarification
Glacier large natural accumulation of land ice
affected by present or past flowage
Pleistocene last 1.5 million years
Holocene the present epoch (~10,000 years)
Laurentide ice sheet ice sheet that over took
Northern North America
Driftless area an area that escapes an ice cover
Periglacial processes in an environment of intense
frost action, located in cold climate regions or near the
margins of alpine glaciers or large ice sheets
Sea level changes rises .5 mm a year from GIS, .4
mm a year from AIS
Crustal depression caused by the adding of weight
by sedimentation from erosion or orogenic processes,
or loading
Pluvial a period of increase rainfall (thousands of
years)
Accumulation zone where addition of ice
accumulated faster than ablation
Ablation zone portion of a glacier that is
evaporating/melting faster than the addition of ice
Cirque bowl shaped depression carved in rock by
glacial processes and holding the firn of the upper end
of an alpine glacier
Arte sharp, knife-like divide or crests formed
between two cirques by alpine glaciation
Hanging valley smaller tributary valleys that join the
main glacier valley may be left hanging at a higher
elevation as the trunk glacier deepens the main valley
Terminal moraine moraine deposited as an
embankment at the terminus of an alpine glacier or at
the leading edge of an ice sheet
Lateral moraine debris ridge formed along ices
edge next to trough wall
Erratic large rock that is transferred by glacial
movement and of different composition than the
natural surrounding rocks
Glacial recession - The process by which glaciers
appear to recede while they melt. This has been
occurring since the last ice age
Concepts
The eruption of Mt. Saint Helens- An earthquake on May 18th caused the entire north side of the mountain to
collapse, causing the largest debris flood in recorded history. After the collapse, the magma inside the mountain
burst forth in pyroclastic flow that covered 230 square miles and flattened vegetation and buildings. Several
lahars flowed down river streams, destroying bridges and lumber camps. Days before the eruption, a massive
bulge visibly grew on the side of the volcano.
Plate Tectonics-This is the idea that the earths crust is made out of plates that float on liquid rock and constantly
interact with one another. Under this theory, tectonic plates move together to make mountains, under one another
to make faults, opposite directions to make faults, and apart to make ridges. Alfred Wegener came up with this
theory.
Tsunamis-These are caused by seismic activity deep in the ocean. The resulting shockwave pushes massive
amounts of water. The tsunami can be more severe if it is closer to the coast or in deeper water. Also, if the fault
that caused the tsunami is parallel with the coast line, the tsunami will have maximum affect. Human beings often
increase the severity of the tsunami destruction by not preparing properly or at all. Sometimes, no early warning
systems are in place, or retaining walls are built far too low. This creates no barrier between the tsunami and the
populace.
In impoverished regions that are constantly hit by tsunamis, no industrial or infrastructure
construction occurs. This is because tsunamis his so often they destroy most projects. This creates a cycle where
poverty continues because no construction can occur, or construction is too costly to begin. Economic
development cannot begin where buildings and lives are constantly destroyed.
What is not a landform created by glacial activity? f. Lahar
Which of the following volcanoes is an example of a stratovolcano? e. Mount St. Helens
What are the two forces or factors that generate metamorphic rock? (Pick one answer) b. Heat and pressure
The term for a marine wave caused by volcanic or earthquake activity is a: d. tsunami
The Aleutian Islands were formed as a result of: c. The collision of two oceanic plates
Which of the following rocks results from the metamorphosis of limestone? e. marble
What is not a part of the scientific process? c. Opinion