Abnormality
Abnormal Researching Psychology Robin Rosenberg and Stephen Kosslyn
PowerPoint Slides prepared by: Nicholas Greco IV, M.S. College of Lake County
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The ___________________ is the process of gathering and interpreting facts that can lead to the formulation of a new theory or the validation of an existing theory. The steps include: Identifying a question to be answered Systematically observing relevant phenomena Developing a hypothesis to explain the observations Collecting new observations to test the hypothesis Formulating a theory Testing the theory
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Data are numerical measurements or systematic observations of phenomena. ________ is the process of repeating a study using the same data collection methods under identical or nearly identical conditions to obtain data that should have the same characteristics as the original study. A Hypothesis is a preliminary idea that is proposed to explain a set of data. A theory is a principle (or set of principles) that explains a set of data. Predictions are hypotheses that should be confirmed if a theory is correct.
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Experiments are research studies in which investigators intentionally manipulate one variable at a time, and measure the consequences of such manipulation on one or more other variables. Independent variable is the variable a researcher manipulates. The cause Dependent variable is the variable that may change as a result of manipulating the independent variable. The effect ____________ variables (confounds) are factors that might inadvertently affect the variables of interest in an experiment, but are not under the experimenter's control.
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The control group is a group of participants in an experiment for which the independent variable is not manipulated, but which is otherwise treated identically to the experimental group. The independent variable is not manipulated for the control group. Must be similar to the experimental group Bias is any inadvertent influence on factors that can affect data in systematic ways. ____________ assignment involves assigning participants to each group in a study using a procedure that relies on chance.
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Age, education, cultural background, etc.
______________ is the distortion in data that can occur when the participants in an experiment have not been drawn randomly from the relevant population under investigation. The population is the complete set of possible participants. The sample is a small portion of a population that is examined in a study. Internal validity is a characteristic of a study that measures what it purports to measure because it has controlled for confounds. External validity is a characteristic of a study whose results generalize from the sample to the population from which it was drawn and from the conditions used in the study to similar conditions outside the study.
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_______experimental design involves groups that already exist because random assignment is not ethical, desirable, or possible. For example, you sort groups into those who had childhood loss and experienced helplessness and those who had childhood loss but did not experience helplessness. You still try to control as many variables as you can such as age, health, education, and economic level.
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Correlational research is used when manipulating the independent variable would be unethical. Correlation is the relationship between the measurements made of two variables in which a change in the value of one variable is associated with a change in the value of the other variable. Correlation does not imply ___________.
No variables are manipulated Naturally occurring variations among measurements of different variables are compared
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Correlation coefficient is a number that ______________ the strength of the correlation between two variables; the correlation coefficient is most typically symbolized by r. A positive relationship is indicated by any correlation coefficient between 0 and +1. Both variables increase or decrease in the same direction. A negative relationship is indicated by any correlation coefficient between 0 and 1. Variables change in opposite directions, one goes up; the other down.
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Statistically significant refers to the condition where the probability of obtaining the value of a statistical test is greater than what would be expected by chance alone. _____________ is a type of correlational research that investigates the rate of occurrence, the possible causes and risk factors, and the course of diseases or disorders. Longitudinal studies (in studies of psychopathology) are designed to determine whether a given variable is a risk factor by using data collected from the same participants at various points in time.
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Case studies (in studies of psychopathology) are designed to focus in detail on one individual and the factors that underlie that person's psychological disorder or disorders. Used for: Demonstrating some aspect of diagnosis, etiology, or treatment To provide support for or against a particular hypothesis or theory To train other mental health professionals Generalize from case studies only ________ ______________
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Singleparticipant experiments are experiments with only a single participant. These studies rely on the _____________ which is used to measure change in target behaviors as the result of some treatment. The baseline condition is A; the administration of a treatment or behavior modification is B.
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________________ is a research method that statistically combines the results of a number of studies that address the same general question. Valuable when some studies show an effect but others do not Increases the size of the overall data set May uncover a relationship that is not apparent in a single study May also be problematic File drawer problem, wherein studies never make it to publication and are not included in a metaanalysis Some studies may not have been conducted well Poor methodology
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Psychologists have developed ethical guidelines for research. __________________ must be obtained from all participants. The participant signs and acknowledges that he or she understands what is involved in the study and agrees to participate, knowing he or she can withdraw any time. Participants must be debriefed after a study is over. Most studies need Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval. The safety and wellbeing of the participants in a study is most important.
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Many researchers are exploring the possible role of neurological factors in causing psychological disorders. Assessment is done directly with ___________ or indirectly with neuropsychological testing or measurements of the level of stress hormones in the bloodstream. Limitations of neuroimaging include: An incomplete understanding of what different parts of the brain do Being unsure of what it means when an area is activated when a person with a disorder performs a task but not when a normal participant performs it
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Scientists who study psychological factors examine specific mental contents, behaviors, or emotions, biases in mental processes. Assessing mental contents, behaviors, and emotions via selfreport or report by others can be inaccurate because of biases of what people perceive, remember, and report. People are more likely to recall information consistent with their current mood than information that is inconsistent with their current mood, and this is known as the _____________ memory bias.
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Clinical interviews may be influenced by bias:
Questions can be affected by an interview or by a self report questionnaire. Friends and family may be biased because they only report on the problems that they ______________________. Cultural and intellectual problems may cause a misunderstanding of the questions asked.
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Problems with the Use of Questionnaires
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________________ is the tendency to respond in a particular way, regardless of what is being asked by the question. Social desirability is a bias toward answering questions in a way that respondents think makes them "look good" even if the responses are not true. Some people answer questions in a way that makes them "look bad" or worse than they really are. These people may be presenting with malingering or factitious disorder, or may be desperate to have their suffering taken seriously.
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Acquiescence checking off agree more than disagree Can be reduced by wording half the items negatively
Problems Related to "Anchoring"
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Experimenter __________________ occurs when the experimenter's intentionally or unintentionally treating participants in ways that encourage particular types of responses. Doubleblind design is a research design in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows the group to which specific participants have been assigned or the predicted results of the study. Doubleblind studies are a way to minimize experimenter expectancy effects and other extraneous variables.
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___________ is a behavior change that occurs when one becomes aware of being observed. When people give permission to observe their behavior, they may subtly change what they do and say.
Halo effect Social desirability
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There are several questions researchers and clinicians want to answer when a new medication is developed or an existing one is being used in a different way.
Is the new treatment more effective than no treatment? If a treatment is effective, is it because of its actual properties or because of the patient's ______________?
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Is the treatment more effective than other treatments currently used for those symptoms or problems? What are the treatment's side effects, and are they troubling enough that patients tend to stop the treatment? How does this dropout rate compare to other treatments?
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Placebo effect is a positive effect of a medically inert substance or procedure. Proof that the placebo effect can be quite strong in clinical research trials is that:
Patients may not truly be ____ in doubleblind studies. May need to use an active placebo
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Taking more placebo pills generally has a greater effect than no treatment Capsules do a better job than pills Injections do better than capsules Clinical staff provide too much therapeutic support
More than half of those who begin a treatment in a research study do not complete the treatment. ____________ is the reduction in the number of participants during a research study. Attrition can affect the results of the study since the researcher must decide to compare either all of the subjects including the dropouts or just the completed subjects. The decision can yield either positive or negative findings.
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________________ are helpful aspects of therapy that are shared by virtually all types of psychotherapy. These include:
Opportunities to express problems Some explanation and understanding of the problems An opportunity to obtain support, feedback, and advice Encouragement to take appropriate risks and achieve a sense of mastery Hope and a positive relationship
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Specific factors are the characteristics of a particular treatment or technique that lead it to have unique benefits, above and beyond those conferred by common factors. An _____________ study is research in which treatment is provided in a way that is analogous to the way it is usually provided, but that is conducted under controlled conditions in a laboratory setting, thereby minimizing confounds.
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Would therapy be better than no therapy? Researchers assign participants to two groups: Treatment and no treatment (waitlist control group) Researchers assess the levels of symptoms at the beginning of the study known as the ______ symptom level Researchers then assess the same variables again after the treatment period and compare the results of the two groups. A placebo control group can be substituted for a no treatment group.
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The Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program (TDCRP) marked a turning point in psychotherapy research. The TDCRP study used a randomized clinical trial (RCT) design which had at least two groups a treatment group and a control group (usually a placebo control) to which participants are ____________ assigned.
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CBT and imipramine were found to have been more effective than CBT alone. IPT and imipramine were more effective than CBT alone.
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________________ treatment ensures that all therapists who use one particular approach provide similar therapy that is distinct from other types of therapy. This is essential for RCTs which provide brief therapy over 6 to 16 sessions. The ___________ effect is a pattern in which studies conducted by investigators who prefer a particular theoretical orientation tend to obtain data that supports that particular orientation.
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When a welldesigned and wellconducted research study shows a particular treatment or technique for a given disorder has had a beneficial effect, that treatment or technique is said to be empirically supported/empirically validated. ___________________ practice is a treatment or set of techniques that research has shown to be effective for that patient's problem.
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Criticisms of Randomized Clinical Trials (RCTs): Exclusion criteria too narrow and not realistic Homogeneous samples which include White and middleclass Overly rigid manualbased treatment Relative effectiveness Therapy quality Common factors versus specific techniques Length of treatment Problems with DSM diagnostic groups The nature of the __________ variables Applying the results to individual patients
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The ___________ relationship is the association between more treatment (a higher dose) and greater improvement (a better response).
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Research suggests that the difference between a therapist and a patient, in terms of race, ethnicity, or gender does not matter. These differences do not systematically alter therapy's beneficial effect. Men and women are less likely to drop out of treatment if they have a ________ therapist. However, some patients prefer a therapist with a similar background or ethnicity to their own.
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