2218 WORK People and Organisations
Power and Leadership in Teams and
Organisations
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SCHOOL
Section 1: Power and Politics
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SCHOOL
Introduction
Traditional notions of organisations as unitary bodies and management as
technocrats often neglect power.
Moreover the use of power, through political behaviour, is seen as
illegitimate.
Power and politics are important and pervasive issues in the study of
organisations.
This topic examines arguments about how power structures and roles
within organisations what power is; where it comes from.
It is becoming more generally accepted that managers need to understand
processes of politics in order to get things done.
Meaning of Power
According to McShane et al: Power is the capacity of a
person, team or organisation to influence others. (2010:
382).
Social power is the capacity to bring about behavioural
change.
Other writers make a distinction between power and
influence.
Martin and Fellenz see power as:
- ... The capacity to get others to behave in desired ways.
Infuence is:
- The process by which others are induced to behave in desired
ways (519).
Power is linked to dependence
Power and Dependence
Person Bs
counterpower
over Person A
Person
B
Person
A
Person As
power over
Person B
Person
Bs goals
Model of Power in Organisations
Sources
of Power
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Expert
Referent
Power
Over Others
Contingencies
of Power
Substitutability
Centrality
Discretion
Visibility
French and Ravens sources of power
Legitimate
Agreement that people in certain roles
can request certain behaviours of
others.
Based on job descriptions and mutual
agreement from those expected to
abide by this authority.
Reward
Ability to control the allocation of
rewards valued by others and to
remove negative sanctions.
Operates upward as well as
downward.
French and Ravens sources of power
Legitimate
Reward
Ability to apply punishment.
Exists upward as well as downward.
Coercive
Peer pressure is a form of coercive
power.
Expert
Individuals or work units capacity to
influence others by possessing
knowledge or skills that they value.
Employees gaining expert power over
companies in knowledge economy.
French and Ravens sources of power
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Expert
Referent
Occurs when others identify
with, like or otherwise
respect the person.
Associated with charismatic
leadership.
Leadership and Influence
Influence:
- Any behaviour that attempts to alter someones attitude or
behaviour
- Critical competency for management roles at any level:
influencing skills
- Influence tactics vital for:
- Organisational leaders
- Team leaders
- Team members
Types of influence tactics
Silent authority
Assertiveness
Information control
Coalition formation
Upward appeal
Ingratiation and impression management
Persuasion
Exchange
Types of influence tactics and effects
Hard Influence
Tactics
Soft Influence
Tactics
Silent authority
Persuasion
Upward appeal
Coalition formation
Ingratiation &
impression mgt
Information control
Exchange
Assertiveness
Resistance
Compliance
Commitment
Lukes 3 Dimensions of power
Dimension 1
Power that is exercised ukes 3 a decision in situations
L to secure Dimensions of power
where there is some observable conflict or disagreement.
Dimension 2
Power that is exercised to keep issues on or off the decision
making agenda, so that potential conflicts or disagreements
are precluded and therefore unobservable.
Dimension 3
Institutionalised power that is used to define reality for its
members. If norms and meanings that have been defined by
senior management become internalised by employees, they
will accept and act in accordance with them, even if it goes
against their real interests
Source: Huczynski and Buchanan, (2007) Organisational Behaviour, Prentice Hall.
Organisational Politics
Martin and Fellenz (2010) definer organizational politics as:
- ...activities used to gain and apply power in organizations. Generally defined as
behaviour outside the accepted procedures and norms of a particular context,
intended to further the positions of an individual or group at the expense of
others.
Depending on how this definition is sliced up politics in organisations can
be seen as negative or normal.
Generally negative views see politics as outside the normal practices and
for self serving purposes.
Others see politics as normal as these are the activities that individuals
and groups undertake to increase and use their power.
Many of the influence tactics that have been identified can also be
considered to be political tactics in organisations.
Evaluations of whether these tactics result in negative political behaviour
will be based in ethical judgements.
Section 2: Leadership Theory
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SCHOOL
What is leadership?
Most definitions of leadership involve notions of
interpersonal leadership the text is no different.
- Leadership is the process of influencing people and providing
an environment for them to achieve team or organisational
objectives.
Does leadership inevitable involve the use or ennactment
of power?
Power depicted a force overtones); (coercive influence as
persuasion (voluntary acceptance).
Studies of Leadership
Most studies of leadership have collected evidence about individual
perceptions and behaviour from leaders themselves
When studies have sought broader confirmation of this evidence, they
have considered assessments from subordinates after the event
Not many studies of leadership in action the process of leadership,
the behaviour of leadership, is not observed in studies of leadership
Leadership can also be seen through constructivist interpretations.
A lot of the leadership literature ends up trying to explain very complex
situations, and its appeal is in its ability to explain these situations simply
by reverting to this appealing abstract idea reducing complexity to one
factor.
For a discipline based on positivist science explanations of leadership
are very unscientific.
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Perspectives of Leadership
Competency
perspective
Implicit
leadership
perspective
Leadership
perspectives
Behavioural
perspective
Contingency
perspective
Transformational
perspective
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Seven leadership competencies
Drive
Leadership motivation
Integrity
Self-concept
Intelligence
Knowledge of the business
Emotional intelligence
Leader behaviour perspective
People-oriented behaviours
- showing mutual trust and respect
- concern for employee needs
- desire to look out for employee welfare
Task-oriented behaviours
- assign specific tasks
- ensure employees follow rules
- push employees to reach peak performance
Path-goal leadership styles
Directive
- task-oriented behaviours
Supportive
- people-oriented behaviours
Participative
- encouraging employee involvement
Achievement-oriented
- using goal setting and positive self-fulfilling prophecy
Path-goal leadership model
Employee
contingencies
Leader
behaviours
Leader
effectiveness
Motivated
employees
Satisfied
employees
Leader
acceptance
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievementoriented
Environmental
contingencies
Path-goal contingencies
Employee
contingencies
Directive Supportive Participative Achievement
Skill/experience
Low
Low
High
High
Locus of control
External
External
Internal
Internal
Environmental
contingencies
Directive Supportive Participative Achievement
Task structure
Non-routine Routine
Non-routine
?
Team dynamics
ve norms
+ve norms
?
Low cohesion
Leadership substitutes
Conditions that limit a leaders influence or make a
particular leadership style unnecessary.
Examples:
- training and experience replace directive leadership
- cohesive team replaces supportive leadership
- self-leadership replaces achievement-oriented leadership
Transformational and transactional
leaders
Transformational leaders
- Leading changing the organisation to fit the environment
- Change agents
Transactional leaders
- Confusing definitions, but originally about seeking employee
compliance through rewards, punishment, and negotiation
Managing achieving current objectives more efficiently
- Link job performance to rewards
- Provide staff with necessary resources
- Relates to contingency leadership theories (eg. path-goal)
Transformational leadership elements
Building
commitment
Creating
a vision
Transformational
leadership
Modelling
the vision
Communicating
the vision
Transformational leadership elements
SOURCE: Noel Tichy and David Ulrich (1987) The leadership challenge: A call for the transformational leader, in A.D. Timpe (ed.) Leadership, New York: Facts on File Publications, p. 29.
Implicit Leadership Perspective
Follower perceptions of characteristics of effective leaders:
1. Leadership prototypes
- Preconceived image of effective leader, used to evaluate leader
effectiveness
2. Romance of leadership effect
- Amplify effect of leaders on organisational results
- Fundamental attribution error
- Need for situational control
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The role of leaders?
In the context of self-directed work teams
- How do external leaders encourage team self-leadership?
- What leadership styles and behaviours are appropriate for internal
leaders/ team members?
- What are the implications of transferring management authority to the
team?
Performance Management and Teams?
In empowered work groups, how do you manage performance
problems of members of the group?
- One individual is elected to handle the decisions
- All group members use discussion and consensus
- The formal manager (not a member of the group) takes
responsibility
Source: Liden, R., Wayne,S. and M. Kraimer (2001) Managing individual performance in work groups Human Resource
Management, 40(1): 63-72.
Results and Findings
Transfer of disciplinary action from the manager to the work
group does not create greater leniency
Benefits of transfer:
- Groups make more accurate judgments
- Span of control vs. richer information available
- Less prone to bias
Cautions
Disciplinary actions are subject to legal requirements
Also need training on effective group processes and decision
making
Do you still need a manager, or leader?
- Where group norms deviate from organisational goals
- Benefits of having an outsiders point of view