Context The of Indian Politics
Key issues
World's largest democracy
How to govern >1 billion people, most of whom are very poor?
Legacy of colonialism--a new state (1947) with very old culture Great diversity--religion, ethnicity Nuclear power--prestige on world scale
Geography
Population of 1 billion!
Area 1/3 the size of US Still mostly rural--around 70% live in rural areas Disputed borders--with China, and Pakistan (over Kashmir)
Major cleavages
Rural vs. urban--note similarities with China. Crowded huge cities. Religion--large role in politics
80% Hindu 11% Muslim (2nd largest Muslim population in world Sikh (2%)
Language--18 major languages--Hindi (31%)
Regionally concentrated; basis for regional movts.
Cleavages, cont.
Caste system--India's social stratification system
Based on Hindu system of categorization Marriage within caste, occupations limited to certain castes Brahmins (political leaders, priests) Kshatriyas (warriors)
Four major groups:
Caste, cont.
Vaisyas (traders and merchants) Sudras (menial laborers) Now abolished (in writing, at least (1950 Constitution): the Dalits, or Untouchables
Perform lowest jobs--garbage disposal, removal of dead Touch considered polluting to high-caste Indians
The Pre-Colonial Period
Very ancient culture--dates back to 4000 BC Indo-Aryans arrive from Caucasus (beginning in 1500 B.C.): dominant ethnic group today (72%) Vedanta: philosophical system based on belief in all pervasive cosmic system;unity of all forms of life Aryans credited for developing caste system, beliefs forming foundation for Hinduism
Pre-Colonial period, cont.
5th century B.C.: Introduction of Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) travels in northern India--philosophy rejects caste system By 250 B.C. India almost entirely Buddhist 1000 A.D.: Muslims invade area By 1600s India under control of Mogul dynasty
The British Raj (Reign)
1700s: Europeans move into South Asia 1757: British emerge as dominant power after defeat of Bengali army at Plassey Mid 1850s: British have entire sub-continent under their control Mostly indirect control. Until 1857, administered by shareholders of East India Company; reliance on Indian soldiers
1857-1947: Control of the Crown
1857: Indian Mutiny. Sepoys refuse to use new rifles. 18-month rebellion results in 1000s of deaths. Queen Victoria administers India directly 1885: Indian National Congress founded. Initially moderate; not pro-independence
1857-1947, cont.
1919: Amritsar massacre
Indian troops, under British command, fire on demonstrators defying ban on public meetings
Leads Indian National Congress to campaign for independence Constitutional reforms of 1919, Government of India Act of 1935 provide avenues for participation of INC in local/regional politics Leadership of Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)
Leader of India's independence movement Philosophy of nonviolence and passive resistance known as satyagraha (soul force) Advocated tolerance between Hindus and Muslims in colonial India. Launches, along with Jawarhalal Nehru, the Quit India campaign against the British ('42) Assassinated by radical Hindu
Independence, 1947
Gandhi advocates one state Muslim League, under Muhammed Ali Jinnah, argues that Muslims are a separate nation and deserve separate state British decide on partition 12 million people migrate; MuslimsPakistan; HindusIndia. At least a million perish. Unresolved problem of Kashmir
Defining India's borders
War with Pakistan in 1947, and 1965 over Kashmir. Dispute ongoing. 1971 War with Pakistan over East Pakistan. Indian victory leads to creation of Bangladesh. 1962 border conflict with China; border still disputed
1947-1989: The Era of "Dynastic Politics"
Nehru Prime Minister (1946-1964) Daughter, Indira Gandhi, dominates Indian politics from 1964-1984 Her son, Rajiv, PM from 1984-89) Future role of Rajiv's wife, Sonia? Politics dominated by single party, the Congress Party, during this period.
Indian Political Culture
Subservience to traditional authority--caste system good illustration. Still a village society. Personalism of Indian politics; perpetuation of Nehru dynasty Politics and violence go hand-in-hand; idea coexists with tradition of passive resistance, nonviolence, decision-making by consensus Growing middle class expressions of frustration at deficiencies in political system, high levels of poverty; political class is very modern
Legacy of British Colonialism
Smooth transfer of power; continuity of leadership and institutions Indian experience in bureaucracy and security apparatus Congress Party was nationwide institution Partition of India removes main challenger--Muslim League Distrust of power separation of powers and devolution of power to local levels
The Indian Constitution, 1950
One of longest Constitutions in world Creates a federal state with a parliamentary system, modeled on Westminster. Federal model chosen to recognize India's diversity; past history as conglomeration of small princely states Most controversial: Power to declare grave and emergency, suspend freedoms
Leadership
President is head of state, has powers often compared to those of British monarch
Because of several indecisive elections (1979), (1996-97), (1998), President has played important role in designating the Prime Minister
Powers actually greater than UK monarch
In 1998, president turns down recommendation to impose president's rule on state of Bihar
Council of Ministers
Most powerful leader is Prime Minister
In theory, comes from majority party in legislature. Under situations of coalition governments, PM sometime chosen from outside ranks of party leadership (1996)
Prime Minister is leader of 45-member Council of Ministers.
Members are in legislature; chosen by PM Smaller group (15-20) usually forms more influential inner cabinet
Legislature
Bicameral Rajya Sabha (House of States): Upper house
250 members. 12 of 250 appointed by president--represent the professions, sciences, arts 238 chosen by state legislatures; # determined by population Fixed terms; 1/3 stand for reelection every 2 years
The Lok Sabha (lower house)
More powerful of two houses 545 members, elected for 5-year terms (Single member districts, WTA process)
525 members come from states, 18 from voters in union territories, 2 seats reserved for Anglo-Indians
Most bills introduced by Cabinet. Members of Lok Sabha have limited staff, financing.
Political Parties in India
One dominant party system: Domination of the Congress Party from 1947-69
Opposition parties play role of parties of pressure Wide range of factions in Congress promote consensus, centrism of party. Ever-widening social base catch-all party
1975-77: Emergency rule, popular authoritarianism
Lessons of the "emergency"
Easy to impose and legitimize (in name of poor, rapid modernization, etc.) Reveals limitations of Congress's strategy of accommodation Legacy is strong--constant reminders of perils of authoritarianism lead to greater willingness to cooperate among elites.
Party politics 1989-present
Post-dynasty politics, for a while at least. Rajiv Gandhi assassinated in 1991 PM Rao (Congress Party, 91-96) effective conciliator, consensus-builder. Depersonalization of Indian politics. Period of coalition politics. No large parliamentary majorities.
Rise of BJP--Hindu Nationalism
2 seats in Lok Sabha in 1984 182 in 1999 Hindu nationalism promotes more prominent role for Hindu culture; against special treatments for minorities Rise in part due to incidents at Ayodhya
1992: Mosque violently torn down. Radical Hindus want to build new temple to Rama on same spot
Hindu-Muslim violence in Gujarat in 2002 helps explain loss of power in 2004
Moderating influences (on BJP)
Hindu religion itself extremely varied
Many sects, separate traditions Concept of unity in diversity.
Moderating effect of coalitional politics
The Congress Party's Return
Congress Party wins election in 2004 Sonia Gandhi, leader, asks Singh, former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister INC plus allies win 217 votes, with 34.6% of vote BJP and allies win 185 seats, with 35.3% of vote.
The Judiciary
In deviation from British model, has Supreme Court with powers of judicial review Powers more limited than in US, because Indian Constitution much more detailed
Also, no concept of natural law; all laws derive from Parliament
1973 decision: any Parliamentary amendments to Constitution vs. basic structure invalid
Federalism in India
25 states Constitution reserves some powers for the states; residual rights reside with the center Limited capacity to raise funds increases dependence on center Central government, through parliament, can create new States, alter boundaries, abolish states President can impose direct rule from Delhi.
Countervailing tendencies
Rise of regionally based parties, some caste based Coalition governments stronger regions Adoption of 3-language policy.
Citizens expected to learn their regional language, as well as Hindi and English. Use of regional languages as administrative languages (in schools and in local administration) heightens sense of regional identity
Territorial problems
Most acute where religion, language, political power bases combine to create centrifugal tendencies. Problem of Kashmir
State of Jammu and Kashmir given special rights. Only state allowed its own Constitution. Kashmiri language, Muslim population Nearly go to war again in 1999, 2000 International problem: UN peacekeepers, foreign terrorists?
Punjab
Sikh majority
Only 2% of population overall, but tenuous majority in Punjab Some advocate own state: Khalistan Frustrations, tendency towards violence Golden Temple attack in 1984. Sikh political party, Akali Dal, is partner with BJP in current coalition
India's Future?
India's breakup unlikely, despite enormous diversity, conflict Elites have learned to understand the benefits of compromise and cooperation Tremendous cultural pluralism helps to explain the success of its democracy. Many crosscutting cleavages, national movements/sources of identity to counteract regional ones