American Latin Politics
April 24, 2007 Indigenous Movements and Political Parties Distinguish b/w two types of representation 1) descriptive representation o the # who hold office
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2) substantive representation o refers to the representation of a groups interest (so, identity of officeholder doesn't matter) o do politicians represent the interests of the poor? (for example) Descriptive and substantive representation can be linked E.g. in the US, if minority interests are not represented, we may elect more minorities We're talking about substantive representation more than anything else We've seen outsiders gain clout by distinguishing themselves from politicians Peron in Argentina; Fujimori in Peru; Toledo in Peru o Toledo emphasized "shoeshine boy" past, despite his Stanford degree o So, we want to focus on substantive representation To what extent are lower classes represented in Latin America? While NGOs/neighborhood associations provide for needs, they don't provide the poor with a political voice Declining representation of the poor has been a general trend, with an exception EXCEPTION: indigenous movements Indigenous people moved from thinking about economics to thinking about ethnicity Moved from identifying as "peasants" to identifying as "indigenous" Throughout 1950s-60s, rural people were organized as peasants; a huge shift later occurred BIG SHIFT: since 1980s, rural populations were seen as indigenous people Indigenous populations: Guatemala: 40-60% Ecuador: 30-40% Mexico: 13% These countries are more likely to see indigenous movements than countries like Argentina, with an indigenous population of 2% While size of population is important, movements can emerge even with small indigenous population Especially if the population is concentrated in some area Beginning around 1980, many countries saw indigenous movements (including Chile w/ 5% indigenous population)
This is an exception to the pessimism of representation Puzzles: 1) why do we see indigenous movements when other types of representation are fading? 2) why do we see rise of representation of indigenous issues/political identify for the first time? 3) why do these movements start more or less at the same time? 4 types of demands of indigenous movements 1) Want self-determination and sovereignty movements have pushed for dramatic increases in political representation and involvement in decision-making in other words, they're demanding right to participate in politics not just as individuals but as groups with influence over the government 2) Want cultural rights often seek bilingual education and recognition of their languages 3) Want access to and control over land and natural resources (material demands) 4) Want the demilitarization of state-indigenous relations especially in Andean region where drug trafficking has thrived in the Peruvian Andes, for example, thousands were killed in conflict b/w Shining Path and the military; the killed were largely indigenous people These demands create new challenges: 1) challenges the conception of the nation-state; challenges idea that everyone has something in common (like being Peruvian) 2) challenges basic democratic tenet that what matters is a right to the individuals; instead, they want group rights Some politicians paint indigenous movements in a negative light, and attempt to argue that they're treasonous Even those politicians who are favorable to indigenous demands still have to grapple with conceptual challenge to the nation-state and idea of group rights this is why there is rarely an alliance b/w indigenous movements and political parties Why do we see these movements emerge in 1980s? Domestic factors and international factors Domestic factors emphasized in Deborah Yashar article
Peasantry was never incorporated into corporatist type organizations like unions Therefore, she argues, the populist period was one in which the rural poor gained a great deal of autonomy (via weakening of oligarchs); yet, unlike urban workers, they were not incorporated into unions When neoliberal reforms arrived in the 1980s, it led to export-led approach and it meant that the peasants' land becoming very valuable o Because the peasants lacked claims, gov'ts were able to execute reforms including deregulation, land reform, etc. o The rural poor saw reduced services and increased insecurity in hold of their land Local protests begin in response to loss of community rights Why did problems result in national protest phenomenon? o 1) role of church groups and NGOs to meet/discover shared concerns o 2) existence of freedom of association and freedom of expression International factors Traced back to 1970s 1971: Barbados conference (World Council of Churches) focuses on indigenous populations around the world; is catalyst for transnational network of NGOs o some see this as beginning of flow of ideas that helps indigenous populations organize o boomerang effect: local NGO pressure int'l NGO, which pressures foreign government, which pressures the local government (which is also pressured by the local NGO) why are int'l actors interested? Comes from 3 different sources o 1) churches have mission to reach out to people they haven't reached before o 2) 500th anniversary of Columbus o 3) return of democracy to most LA countries in 1980s coincided with rise of human rights NGOs also, rise in environmental NGOs (Earth Day, etc.) indigenous groups wisely allied with these NGOs there were some tensions: indigenous leaders butt heads with environmental NGOs (who wanted debt-for-nature swaps, e.g.)
GUATEMALA State-sponsored violence against the Maya killed hundreds of thousands and lasted decades
Social organization began with human rights groups Over time, and encouraged by NGOs, there was a shift toward indigenous rights Peace process ends civil war; Maya receive protections for indigenous populations BOLIVIA Saw rise of indigenous movements in 1970s (earlier than most other cases) Movement known as the Kataristas (named after an indigenous rebel from 18th century) Kataristas sought to transform Marxist parties to indigenous party Dramatic neoliberal reforms (like closing of tin mines) Closing mines put thousands out of work Coca (plant used in cocaine) popular and legal in Boliva Rise of Coca coincides with intensified US War on Drugs (which aimed at eradicating Coca fields) Coca grower elected to Vice Presidency (first indigenous leader) 2002: Evo Morales (head of Coca growers union) runs for president; loses to Sanchez de Lozada ECUADOR Another powerful indigenous movement CONAIE Wants bilingual education, recognition of indigenous cultures, and other policies By 1990, CONAIE claimed to represent 77% of indigenous population CONAIE has relied on protests Pachakutik: political coalition of CONAIE Not an institutionalized party but a confederation of different social movements and indigenous groups This movement from 19% of vote in presidential election Election was won by a neoliberal named Jamil Mahuad Allying with the military, a mass protest by CONAIE led to bringing down government In 2002, Lucio Gutierrez became president CONAIE gets important positions in government, including the two most important cabinet/ministry spots for the indigenous community But, Gutierrez breaks away from CONAIE as he moves to the right CONAIE then leads another massive protest and takes down the government This experience should make us question democratic experience of indigenous movement How good for democracy is an indigenous group if it has repeatedly brought down governments?
Touches on major question: how do we effectively incorporate indigenous groups in democracy? PERU Negative case Unique in that it has no significant indigenous movement Indigenous population was hurt by privatization of land Harsh neoliberal reforms under Fujimori and Toledo Scholars attribute absence of national movement to the rise of the Shining Path and the efforts against it Both the government and the guerillas attacked any forms of social organization Indigenous movements have begun to organize, but not in great political form yet Indigenous causes/demands have not really be taken to national stage yet MEXICO On day that NAFTA went into effect in Mexico,, a group nobody had heard of began to occupy several towns and issues a declaration of war Named themselves the Zapatistas, after the hero of the Mexican Revolution They were criticized at the national and international level It became clear that repression of the state wasn't an option, since the president was hoping to become head of the WTO For over a decade there have been negotiations and protests between the Zapatistas and the government The Zapatistas did in fact get some concessions They also played a role in pushing Mexico to a more democratic posture While the movement did provide some concrete benefits for indigenous communities in Chiapas, it has struggled Question of what the lasting impact of the Zapatistas has been
Latin American Politics
April 26, 2007 Latin American Politics Notes 4-26 Economies and liberalization Human rights Brazil hasn't reckoned with HR abuses Mexico, either, even though Vincente Fox campaigned on issue Chile and Argentina have been moving toward action, renewed focus Prospects for the future Similar trajectories Rise of left throughout region Democracy more stable in some countries than others -Can Chavez consolidate a non-democratic regime -Can Peru maintain democracy -Can southern cone use stability to deepen democracy Economic reforms and liberalization Four factors: Growth, Economic Stability, Poverty, Inequality -compare policies not with heterodox measures, but other models -northern European model
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-social democratic economic policies (instituted in Uruguay) Results -Growth -reforms during and after "lost decade" of 80s haven't lead to GDP growth 0% in 80s, less than 2% in 90s Asian countries grew over 2% in both decades -90s: Chile grew 5% per year 1990s, Argentina 3%, Brazil and Peru 1.5%, Venezuela negative growth -Stability -decline in inflation throughout region: o -instable economy, society
-Poverty
-but neoliberal societies had more volatility in growth (boom and bust)
-poverty rates 40.5% 1980, 48% 1990, 43.8% 2000 -adjusted for purchasing power parity -Inequality -inequality up austerity -harsh policies had lasting effects on inequality -decline of the middle class -privitization benefited the wealthy disproportionately -particularly Argentina, everywhere but Brazil
-So: o No reforms, little growth, extreme and rapid reforms, inequality, boom and bust, middle path most overall growth. Chile maintained controls. Renationalized in 80s, after '82. What can be done? -Inability to tax populations -countries lack infrastructure to follow through, rich refuse to pay -tariffs cannot be collected as before -so sales taxes -percentage of GDP, collects half as much as british carribean -lower than Asia, East Asia, let alone US, EU -disproportionately affect poor and middle class o -ability to systematically tax all of population on income would reduce inequality o o -vs. VAT o -Mexico collects 11% GDP in Taxes, other countries 20%, US 29-30%, East Asia, 30% -Legal reforms, rule of law -corruption is large drain -significant portions of agency budgets diverted
Return of the left -almost every election has been leftist in past decade -10 yrs after Jorge Casteneda wrote book about fall of left -15 years after fall of Berlin Wall Socialists have won last two elections in Chile (first two were CD) -Lagos, now Bachelette Lula and Brazil -election 2002, inauguration 2003 -labor leader, dispersion of power -reelection shows continuing support Venezuela -Chavez has consolidated control of government, support -plebiscite to rewrite constitution, reconstitute assembly -had support of population because kept promises to populace -seen as living as an austere lifestyle in comparison to previous presidents -made distribution of oil wealth to lower classes main plank -lots of support when inaugurated and rewrote constitution, support faded second half 2001, oil prices down -PdeVSA, early april 2002 fires management of company -they win support of middle class -protest in Caracas, over 100,000 -headed toward PdeVSA -turned, intersected march supporting Chavez -20 killed, 10 wounded -Chavez grabbed media, broadcast speeches by national leaders -so violence not on tv -to be replaced by Carmona -removed from palace, taken to military base -immediately reversed all of Chavez's work: o -re-renames country, reinstates managers, gets rid of new assembly and constitution massive demonstrations, with support of military units (Chavez from military) -so Chavez returned to power in 2 days
-opposition to left discredited for participating in coup -couldn't claim they were the true democrats -so less party opposition from upper and middle classes -April 2002, final break in relations between US and Venezuela -accuses US of being behind the coup -clear that American officials knew about before it took place -Bush administration quick to acknowledge new government -other SA countries had been reluctant to -2003, strike PdeVSA -barricaded inside refineries, shut down production -fired 18,000 skilled employees, but no violence -focused on poverty reduction, health clinics, literacy, often staffed by Cubans -new opposition -lead by civil rights activists from universities, funded by US -clause in constitution allows for signatures to recall public officials, 20%referendum o -first set invalid for technical reasons -second set -would be a public record of opposition -people lost their public sector jobs (big sector)
-referendum Aug. 2004, Chavez gets 59% of vote -continued to focus on programs, use US as foil -wins 2006 election, until 2012 -talking about changing constitution so he can run again
-trying to cut oil production -can't meet quotas? Price control? -loss of skilled labor, no one to drive boats -Mexico, can't have foreign investment in oil, can in Venezuela -found huge reserves in Orinoco belt (Chevron, etc.), heavy crude -greater than reserves in Saudi Arabia
Peru
Alan Garcia elected 2006 -like Bellaunde, twice -once one of the most feared men in Peru, wrt economy -nationalized banks, refused to pay IMF, heterodox -opponent, TK Omala? -possible drug smuggling, hr abuses under Fujimori in Amazon -notably, attacks Garcia from left -revolt during Fujimori scandals -several dozen troops, put down -would regularly march in military fatigues through downtown Lima, calling for end to corruption o -no one took seriously as late as 2003 -but then main opponent of Garcia -aided by references to Chavez, lack of stable parties -so, Lourdres Flores, Omala, Garcia -Omala criticizes Lourdres from left, but with ambiguous claims about equality and economy, nationalist card, threatens to cut Chilean influence on country o -Garcia seen as more stable -message, have learned from my mistakes, things couldn't possibly be worse than that o o -critic of Chavez -but leftist cred because criticizes inequality
Argentina -elections April 2003 won by Nestor Kirchner -leftist and centrist policies -paid full debt to IMF ahead of schedule -portrayed as buying the country's independence from imf -as opposed to neoliberal policy -critic of austerity and neoliberal reform -allied by Chavez and other leftists, breaking Menem's close relation to US -economy booming (high commodity prices) -poverty high -policy efforts mostly talk
Ortega, Morales, etc., leftists everywhere Only exceptions are Uribe, for reducing the violence, and Calderon, left nearly won Mexico Calderon talked about job redistribution, PRI delegitimized still Shift in economic policy with turn to the left? -Chavez-style or Lula or Kirchner style leftists? -radical reforms or radical appeals and moderate reforms -unclear that economic policies have or will shift, although popular appeal -might shift further though: Chile -most successful of countries -economy grew quicker, no hyperinflation -but 15 years repressive military rule -did benefit economy -growing inequality -poverty increased under Pinochet, only recently began to decline -privitization of pensions/SSI -1980, eliminated bureaucracy -individual accounts for workers, with matching contributions for country, invested in stock market o -taken as Bush's model -Jose Piera, architect of program, made speaking tour in US, thanks to Heritage Foundation -results disappointing -27 years of system -most of early investors about to retire -promised 70-100% of salary (annuity) -really, 50-60% of Chileans who will retire won't have enough to pay a minimum pension, far lower -below 75% min. wage, $125/month -average 40%, for better pensions
-people who stayed in state system receiving 50-100% more, largely because of commission costs
-would have been 33% higher without (her disseration?) -most profitable sector in country -charges up front, don't get interest -return on investments low, some corruption -Argentina, corruption -defined contribution system: know how much put in -defined benefit system: know how much you'll get -private, public, latter spreads risk over population, earlier puts risk on individual -privitized health care -unless gov steps in, many Chileans in poverty when retire -can't afford medical care, coupled with SSI -So, why didn't it work? Implications for greater neoliberal reform -loopholes that benefited pension fund managers -who had large role in designing legislation -because technocrats -labor unions, other stakeholders excluded from discussion o -Chile less tainted by corruption -issues such as this should be more profound in other countries -means tested law, for those who will be in poverty when retire -expected 2-5% -now, 50-60% bound to fall below poverty line -need to find money for individuals, need to figure out who these individuals are (records gone with privitization) -legitimacy for neoliberal reforms derived from performance -since not consensus -pension system least approved of in Chile -currently, bill to reform in congress
Human Rights and political agendas -Fujimori reckoning
-hr commission in Peru -collected info on deaths in 1980s and early 1990s -69,280 victims, majority attributed to Shining Path -but also gov't -report criticized by bishop of Ayacucho -human rights are bollocks -public August 2003, subsidized copies made available by gov. -Vladimir montesinos, head of secret police, tried for crimes -embezzlement, influence peddling, bribery, etc. guilty -serving 15 years, more trials coming -Fujimori being investigated -Japan still refusing to extradite -has delivered speeches to supporters via satellite to supporters -appeared in Santiago on a plane headed to Lima in 2005 -Chile detained at request of Peru -extradition proceedings begin -thought anti-Chilean sentiment would be enough?? -has extradited a lot of other Peruvians for trial -death of 20 shining path members from report being used in the proceeding -daughter was at sipa, was in NJ, second highest votes -Chile -revelation of Pinochet's corruptions in 2004 cleared to stand trial, hr charges as well, finally -but dies, never convicted or punished -image tarnished, at least -Argentina -reeintroduction and addressing of hr -2005, congress voids Menem's amnesty -those once tried can't be tried again -incl. Videla -lives in BA, people paint messages outside his house -people have begun to come forward to testify against accusers -key witness recently kidnapped by men in ski masks, not seen again, outcry, can't go forward with some trials -another witness kidnapped, found next day
Why huma rights in other countries? -fear of military is gone -military has accepted abuses, guilt -leaders who suffered directly have come to power -left is in power -way for left to appeal to its base without challenging economic elites -wendy miller, cost effectiveness of truth Democracy: quality, accountability, stability -mainstream parties not coming back -vertical accountability in question -Venezuela, in particular, checks and balances of other branches underminded -horizontal accountability regimes democratic in name only **need strong parties -Chile, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, deepening of democracy -Peru has had two free, fair and contested elections since Fujimori -who will be punished -So only Venezuela moved away from consolidation -efforts to redo constitution may be protests -can a democracy replace him? To differing degrees, all countries thinking about redistribution. Challenges from military, economic elites, and foreign powers fading with comparison to the past. -So perhaps can focus on actual changes.
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