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6 Chapter Learning and Adaptation: The Role of Experience Adapting to the Environment What is learning? Process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or capabilities (knowing how) Behaviorism Focused on how organisms learn Examined processes by which experience influences behavior Discovered laws of learning that apply to virtually all organisms Behaviorism cont. Treated organism as tabula rasa Explained learning solely in terms of directly observable events Ethology Focused on animal behavior in natural environments Focused on functions of behavior Ethology adaptive significance of behavior How behavior influences chances of survival, reproduction Ethology Fixed Action Patterns Unlearned (innate) responses Can be modified by experiences Adapting to the Environment Habituation Decrease in response strength to a repeated stimulus Classical Conditioning Learn to associate two stimuli One stimulus elicits a response that was originally elicited only by the other stimulus Operant Conditioning What is Operant Conditioning? Behavior is influenced by consequences that follow it (Skinner, 1938, 1953) Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (UCR) without prior learning Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Reflexive or innate response elicited by the UCS without prior learning Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus Stimulus, that, through association with the UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR Classical Conditioning Conditioned response Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning Acquisition Period during which CR is being learned Types of CS-UCS pairing Forward short-delay Forward trace Simultaneous Backward Classical Conditioning Factors that Typically Enhance Acquisition Multiple CS-UCS pairings An intense, aversive UCS can produce one-trial learning Forward (short-delay) pairing Time interval between onset of CS and onset of UCS is short Classical Conditioning Extinction Process in which CS is presented in absence of UCS Causes CR to weaken and eventually disappear Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery After a rest period, and without any new learning trials, the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR Usually weaker than initial CR, extinguishes more rapidly Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization Stimuli similar to initial CS elicit a CR Aids in survival Classical Conditioning Discrimination CR occurs to one stimulus but not to another Classical Conditioning Higher-order conditioning Neutral stimulus becomes a CS after pairing with already established CS Crossroads of Learning Preparedness (Seligman, 1970) Animals are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily than others Occurs through evolution Classical Conditioning Applications of Classical Conditioning Conditioned fear responses Therapies for fear, anxiety Crossroads of Learning Conditioned fear Influenced by biological preparedness "Little Albert" 1939 Classical Conditioning Exposure Therapy Extinction of CR through exposure to CS without presence of UCS Classical Conditioning Types of Therapy Using Classical Conditioning Systematic desensitization: Muscular relaxation paired with gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimulus Flooding Classical Conditioning Aversion Therapy Condition an aversion Stimuli that triggers unwanted behavior is paired with a noxious UCS Classical Conditioning Other Influences of Classical Conditioning Attraction to other people Positive, negative attitudes Conditioned aversions Anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV) Operant Conditioning Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical: Behavior changes due to association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR) Operant: Behavior changes as a result of consequnces that follow it Operant Conditioning Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning cont. Classical: Focuses on elicited behavior Operant: Focuses on emitted behaviors Operant Conditioning What is Operant Conditioning? Behavior is influenced by consequences that follow it (Skinner, 1938, 1953) Operant Conditioning Instrumental Learning (Thorndike, 1911) Organism's behavior is instrumental in bringing about certain outcomes Operant Conditioning Thorndike's Law of Effect Response followed by a "satisfying" consequence becomes likely more to occur Response followed by an "unsatisfying" consequence becomes less likely to occur Shaping Reinforcers used to guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of desired goal behavior Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Response strengthened by consequence that follows Punishment Response weakened by consequence that follows Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement Occurs when a response is strengthened by the presentation of a stimulus (the positive reinforcer) that follows it Operant Conditioning Negative Reinforcement Response strengthened by removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus (the negative reinforcer) Operant Conditioning Primary reinforcers Stimuli that organism finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs (e.g. food, drink) Operant Conditioning Secondary reinforcers Acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers (e.g. money, praise) Operant Conditioning Continuous Reinforcement Every response of a particular type is reinforced Partial Reinforcement Only some responses are reinforced Operant Conditioning Continuous-Partial Reinforcement Differences With continuous reinforcement: More rapid learning Consequences easier to perceive Extinction more rapid Operant Conditioning Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules Ratio: Certain number of responses are reinforced Operant Conditioning Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules Interval Some amount of time must elapse between reinforcements Operant Conditioning Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules Fixed Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses or fixed time interval Operant Conditioning Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules Variable Reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses or passage of time Operant Conditioning Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) Reinforcement given after a fixed number of responses Variable Ratio Schedule (VR) Reinforcement given after a variable number of responses, centered around an average Operant Conditioning Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) First correct response after a fixed time interval is reinforced Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Reinforcement given for first correct response after a variable time interval, centered around an average Operant Conditioning Operant Extinction Weakening and eventual disappearance of an operant response Why? Response is no longer reinforced Operant Conditioning Operant Extinction cont. Resistance to extinction influenced by pattern of reinforcement that has maintained behavior Good alternative to punishment Operant Conditioning Aversive Punishment Response weakened by subsequent stimulus presentation E.g. spanking or scolding Operant Conditioning Response Cost Response weakened by subsequent removal of a stimulus Examples: loss of privileges or money misbehaving child gets "time out" that removes opportunity to watch TV or play Operant Conditioning Effectiveness of Punishment (Holden, 2002) Must occur after every transgression Must be immediate Must be intense Must not be signaled by discriminative stimulus Operant Conditioning Applications: Education and Workplace Teaching machines (Skinner) and computer-assisted instruction Immediate feedback Self-paced learning Token economies: Desired behavior reinforced with tokens, exchangeable for rewards Operant Conditioning Applications: Specialized Animal Training Animals assist people who have disabilities Animals assist police, military Animals perform in entertainment industry Operant Conditioning Applications: Modifying Problem Behaviors Applied Behavior Analysis Behavior modification Operant Conditioning Modifying Behavior Specify the problem Collect baseline data Identify antecedents (A) and consequences (C) Develop plan to modify A, C Implement program and measure progress Crossroads of Learning Cognition in Operant Conditioning Organisms develops an awareness or expectancy of response-consequence contingencies Crossroads of Learning Cognition in Operant Conditioning Latent Learning Learning that occurs at Time A but is not demonstrated until Time B Crossroads of Learning Constraints on Operant Conditioning Instinctive Drift A conditioned operant response "drifts back" toward instinctive behavior Observational Learning What is observational learning? Learning that occurs by observing the behavior of a model Observational Learning The Modeling Process (Bandura, 1977) Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation

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