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Semantic Memory
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-Conceptual-Encyclopedic-Context free
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parietal lobe
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touch
spatial orientation
nonverbal thinking
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PET scan
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positron emission tomography
scans for glucose in the brain
use detectors to find radioactive particles in bloodstream
color coded map with red meaning most active
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unconscious interference
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constructivist viewpoint
we spontaneously integrate information from several sources to construct a perception
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Mnemonics
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-Tool/trick-"To help memory"-Method of loci, Peg-word mnemonic, and acronyms
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contralateral
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left hemisphere controls/takes in sensory input from right side, and vice versa
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psychophysics
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studies relationship between physical events and psychological response
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attribute-frequency model
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another prototype formation model
prototype represents the most frequently experienced combination of attributes
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central-tendency model
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type of prototype formation
prototype is conceptualized as representing the average or mean of a set of exemplars
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Priming is a.... (two things)
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-Phenomenon-Method
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Talland
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-Brown-Peterson task with two different distractors-One condition: count backward by 3's-Second condition: read #'s from screen
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Chunking
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-Grouping items together into meaningful chunks-7 +/- 2 is number of chunks that can be held in STM-Enables breaking of informational "bottleneck" in STM
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mass action
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importance of individualized neurons is minimized and memories seem to be distributed throughout the brain
"there are no special cells for special memories"
Karl Lashley
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localization
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different parts of brain have different functions
began with phrenology
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transduction
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convert stimulus energy into neural impulses
sensory energy-->
sensory systems-->
transduction-->
attention
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canonic perspectives
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spawned out of gestalt psychology
we think about things in terms of an icon in our head...this is kind of related to prototypic theories
usually our image in memory is one that gives the most information about the object or event or whatever
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Explaination for Brook's results
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-Tracing letter: visuo-spatial-Counting: phonological resource (doesn't overlap with visuo-spatial so can do simultaneously)-Laser pointer: visuo-spatial (same as tracing letter so both consume resources from same visuo-spatial resource)
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Informal mnemonics
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-Less elaborate-Suited for smaller amounts of info-More idiosyncratic and personalized
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Tulving: Memory and Consciousness
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-Anoetic Consciousness-Noetic Consciousness-Auto-Noetic Consciousness
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Wickens: Method
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-2 conditions: control and experimental-Control group: words in all trials were similiar (similiar stimuli)-Experimental group: words in trial 4 were different (change stimuli in trial 4)
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Mnemonic Devices facilitate
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-Encoding (structure for learning)-Retention (organization &/or imagery)-Retrieval (cues)
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Brooks: Results
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-Counting (verbal task) while scanning visual image yield few errors-Laser pointer task while scanning visual image was more difficult
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Declarative Memory
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-Explicit and with awareness-Talk about these memories-Can be episodic or semantic memories
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Hellyer: Frequency of Rehearsal
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-Brown-Peterson task-Modification: rehearse items before given an arithmetic distractor task -Varied how many times one could rehearse -Believe accuracy is a function of retention interval
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Bower: Results
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-Hierarchical organization led to 100% accuracy on 3rd and 4th trial-Control only got 62% accuracy by 4th trial
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CAT (or CT) scans
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computerized axial tomography
of modern types, this is most basic and limited
x-ray taken from many angles of the head which are joined together to make 3D image
gives idea of physical structure
static: doesnt tell us how brain might change from one moment to next
shows where physical damage may have occurred
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cognitive neuroscience
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study of the relationship between neuroscience and cognitive psychology
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temporal lobe
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primary auditory cortex
front and below gray area: sound distinction and other basic auditory sound processing
hearing
Wernicke's Area: speech comprehension
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Wernicke's (or receptive) aphasia
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problem in understanding language. usually they can speak fluently but sometimes speech doens't make sense. it's difficult to understand meaning behind speech.
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anterograde amnesia
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damage to hippocampus or temporal lobe
difficulty learning new things, but memory is fine for things before injury
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Signal detection theory
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applies to any decision-making situation with any level of uncertainty
Elements:
Sensitivity (physical)
Response bias (non-sensory factors)
Study:
Signal trials
No-signal trials
Lesson: the same event doesn't always elicit the same psychological response
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form perception
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pattern perception is examined from various theoretical positions
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Subtractive Method
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-Measure RT1 for task involving mental processes A, B, and C-Measure RT2 for comparision task only involving processes A and C-Find duration of process B by subtracting RT2 from RT1
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Neely: Priming Summary
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-Lexical decision task-Each letter string was preceded by a prime, either a related word, an unrelated word, or a neutral prime (baseline condition)-2 sources of priming: automatic spreading activation and expectancy
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Rosch: Typicallity Effects
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Collected category membership norms and found some items listed as members of category more frequently than others
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3 Possibilities for Sternberg's Results
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-Serial self-terminating search-Parallel search-Serial exhaustive search
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Characterisitcs of Slave Systems
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-Responsible for low-level processing-Domain specific-Have own pool of attentional resources (pools are very limited)-Don't overlap
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sensation vs. perception
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sensation: initial detection of energy from physical world
perception: interpretation of sensory input
*we don't sense everything, and we perceive even less*
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Gestalt Theory
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Pattern recognition is based on the perception of the whole pattern of stimuli
parts derive meaning from their membership to the whole
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template matching theory
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pattern recognition occurs when a match is made between sensory stimuli and a corresponding mental form
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Patient HM: Hippocampus lesioned
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-Almost complete anterograde amnesia (no new memories)-Normal memory for motor learning-Episodic and semantic memory may eventually be compromised since ability to encode new connections to existing knowledge was lost
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HM's and motor skill tasks
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-Intact skill learning-Normal learning curve for mirror drawing task w/ few errors by day 3-However, HM has no memory of doing the repeated task before (no explicit memory record)
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Procedural Memory
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-Implicit and w/o awareness-How to do things-Primings, conditioning, and other types of (non-associative) learning i.e. task-aversion learning
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Patient KC: Declarative Dissociation
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-Frontal brain damage-Retrograde and anterograde amnesia for episodic memory-Intact semantic memory though-Evidence of a dissociation bwt episodic and semantic systems
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Type I (maintaince)
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-Low level, repetitive info recycling at same level-Once stop cycling information, it's lost (no permanent record in memory)
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Hellyer: Results
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-The more frequently the items were rehearsed, the better retention across the distracting periodMore rehearsal = Greater chance of getting into LTM
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Craik & Watkins: Results
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-Processed words to different depths-Case judgement was shallow-Rhyme -> STM-Pleasantness -> LTM-Increase recognition accuracy w/ deeper level processing
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Task Effects: Recognition
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-Generally a higher accuracy found with recognition-Influenced by recollection and familiarity-Less retrieval effort than recall tasks-Type I rehearsal had effect on LTM when recognition tasks were used ***not true with recall tasks
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Serial Self-Terminating Search
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-Search memory set items one-by-one and when find match is found (how we look for car keys)
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Semantic Code
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-Wickens found that release from PI due to semantic interference-Info in STM is based on semantic code-Evidence was switching categores resulted in release from PI
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Additive Factors Method
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-Repeat mental process for some number of times during a single trial-Still do same processes, but one process is done more than once-Determine how long it takes to do that process by determining how much time was added to people's RT
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Neely: Results for unrelated prime
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-Inhibition-Inhibition effect grew stronger across longer and longer SOA
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Lexical Decision Task
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-Present targets consisting of words or nonwords-Task is to decide if target is word or nonword-Look at RT
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Key terms associated with priming
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-Prime-Target-Task (lexical decision, naming)-Facilitation vs cost-Stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA)
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excitatory neurotransmitters
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cause charge in neuron to go up (become less negative)
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inhibitory neurotransmitters
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cause charge to go down (become more negative)
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medial temporal lobe
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inside surface of temporal lobe, where hippocampus is
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epistemology
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the study of the origin and nature of knowlege
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Broadbent's filter theory
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found that nature of auditory input effects how well we listen
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iconic sensory store
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vision (perception of people moving in a movie)
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Bottom-up and top-down processing
theory
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pattern recognition is initiated by the parts of the pattern (bottom-up) that, when summed, lead to the recognition of the whole pattern
alternatively, recognition of the whole leads to recognition of the components (top-down)
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Colling & Quillian: Results
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-Longer to retrieve relationship bwt two concepts at more distant levels in the hierarchy vs, those stored closer together-Fast at category relationships (is a) -False statements were slowest
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Role of Hippocampus in memory
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Critical pathway for successful transfer to LTM
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What is the major process that operates on this is structure?
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-Spreading activation-Activation spreads through the network along stored pathways-Once a concept is activated, the concept spreads activation to other concepts it is linked with
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Rosch-Heider: Paired-Association Learning with Dani
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-Paired chip with clan name-Use chip as a cue to recall clan name-Prototypical colored chips were most useful cues
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Primacy Effect
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-Better memory for first few items on serial-position curve-beginning items are rehearsed so higher probability of being encoded
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What were some theoretical problems w/ STM?
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-Limited capacity (magic number)-Largely based on verbal/acoustic codes-Both wrong SO people began to change conception of STM
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Wickens: Results
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-Both groups did same on first 3 trials-Build up of PI w/ first 3 trials-Experimental group had 90% accuracy on trial 4 -Release from PI
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how does a brain survive damage?
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many functins are generally localized, but not completely
neurons work in big groups so if part of a group gets hurt, they can make new pathways (paralell/series processing)
higher-order functions occur less compartmentally
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Why the influx of cognitive neuroscientists?
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demand for physical support of theoretical structures
need for meaning behind physical structures
clinical goal to find connection of brain pathology and behavior
involvement of neurological functions in mind models
work of computer scientists
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Marcel's Results with Priming
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RT's still faster at target when prime was semantically related even though they didn't consciously register prime
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Waugh and Norman: Results
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-No difference in recall accuracy bwt 2 groups-Suggesting forgetting was influenced by number of intervening items bwt critical digit and recall test
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Neely: Results for "building" prime when didn't switch to body part target
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-"building-door" had faciliation at short SOA (tapped into normal semantic priming) BUT cost at long SOA-"building-shark" had baseline at short SOA and cost at long SOA
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What is Stage I Comparison?
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-Some randomly selected subset of features on each of the two lists is compared to "compute" the similiarity btw the two concepts-Comparison process yields a feature overlap score
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Miller: "Magic Number"
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-7 +/- 2 recall of items (average capacity)-Chunking-Recoding
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Characteristics of Stage I Comparison
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-Rapid, global comparison of the features-High overlap score produces a rapid "yes"-Little or no feature overlap produces a rapid "no"-No need to continue search when overlap scores are very high or low
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Shepard and Metzler Findings
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-RT increased as angular rotation for second drawing increased-Form a visual image that can rotate in mind, but further rotation takes more time
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Eich: State-Dependent Learning
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-Study high, take test high -> get higher scores vs. if one takes test sober-Same with alcohol-Increase access to information in memory by reinstating original learning context
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What is Stage II Comparison?
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-Look at defining features of two concepts being compared-Careful and slow comparison-Respond with slow "yes" or "no"-When overlap score is moderate, a second comparison is necessary
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Craik & Watkins: Depth of processing and repetition priming (1975)
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-Running sequence of words-3 conditions-Manipulate subject's depth of processing-Free recall
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Implicit vs Explicit memory priming effect
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-Implicit memory priming effect is rapid suggesting priming can operate automatically-Explicit memory priming effect is deliberate (like in Neely experiment with "building" as expectancy prime)
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How is information retrieved in the Smith model?
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-Through feature comparison-Two types of comparison:1. Stage I2. Stage II
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Atkinson & Shiffrin: Two Effects of Rehearsal
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-Maintenance: actively maintain info in STMand-Transfer: actively take info from STM and put into LTM
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Problems with subtractive method
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-Difficult to find 2 task that differ in only one mental process-Assumption of "pure assertion" that by subtracting out B, processes A and C are affected (all have to be independent)
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What results would Waugh and Norman have seen if decay theory was right?
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-Worse performance when list presentation took 16 s-More time intervenes during 16 s presentation so have more passive decay
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What three characteristics would a modified network representation have?
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1. No rigid cognitive economy2. Properties listed for a concept would be linked directly to concept rather than indirectly via pathways3. Pathways would be different length reflecting semantic relatedness (which applies to both category and property statements)
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Collins & Quillian: Semantic Network ModelTwo fundamental assumptions are?
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- Structure of semantic memory- Process of retrieving info from structure
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Distractor Task
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-Erase STM in a way so there is no recency effect-Affects STM but not LTM-Primacy portion is unaffected
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Baddeley's Model of Working Memory
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-Instead of single buffer w/ limited capacity and verbal/acoustic codes, have working memory with 3 systems-Central executive and slave systems
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From Rundus' results what do primacy and recency effects depend on?
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-Primacy effect was viewed entirely dependent on rehearsal-Earlier items can be rehearsed more frequently and so are recalled better-Recency effect was viewed as simply recall from STM
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Aristotle: Classical View of Concept
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-Concept is a set of neccessary and sufficient features-Classical view works well with artificial concepts but not with natural concepts-Doesn't tell much about how semantic memory works (i.e. organization of it)
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What is priming across trials?
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-One trial is the prime for target trial-Example: trial such as "fruit-P" is followed by another "fruit" trial-The first was the prime and the second was the task
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Craik & Watson: Depth of processing (1973)
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-Hypothesized that amount of time word is kept in Type I rehearsal will not help recall-Heard long list of words-Task: remember most recent word starting w/ "G"
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How does semantic relatedness affect lexical decision task?
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-Two related words are judged more quickly as words than two unrelated words-Influence of the meanings of the words-Words semantically related prime
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What is the structure of semantic memory?
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*Semantic Network Model*-It is a network structure-Each concept in the network is a node-Concept nodes are linked by pathways-Every concept is related to every other concept b/c some sets of pathway (however indirect and long) can be eventually traced bwt 2 nodes
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Craik & Lockhart: Depth (levels) of Processing
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-Single memory system: sensory, STM, & LTM (not seperate systems)-Perceived stimulus receives some amount of mental processing-Processing can be shallow or deep and more meaningful-Two types of rehearsal
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What were the con's of Collins and Quillians experiment?
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-Spreading activation doesn't explain for the "no" responses-No explanation of how network is learning-Silent on ad hoc categories -Faster with typicality
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2 Conditions in Shand's Experiment
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1. sequence of ASL signs that were phonologically similiar in English2. ASL signs that were cherologically related (similiar hand movements to form sign)
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Language comprehension in a dual-task setting
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-Hold 6 digits in memory while doing comphrehension task-Both comprehension scores and memory span performance disrupted
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Roedigor & McDermont: False Memory
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-List of words in which they were all similiar (i.e. dream, night, nap, etc.)-Reported false memory of hearing word "sleep" which wasn't on list-Episodic and semanitc memory interacted b/c they said "sleep"
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Baddeley's Criticisms on levels of processing
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-Circular definition of Type I and II rehearsal-Task effects: different results with recall vs recognition-Useful heuristic but not a real alternative today
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What were the 3 conditions in Craik & Watkins experiment?
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-Case decision: surface features of letters (shallow processing)-Rhyme judgements: (medium processing)-Pleasantness: (deeper processing)
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Why did Sternberg manipulate size of memory set?
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-He wanted to influence the # of cycles through the search or scan process-And by examing the slope of RT's, he could determine the additional time needed for each cycle in that process
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Early Research on kinds of info held in STM
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-Info was though to be based on verbal/acoustic cues or codes-Conrad: verbal codes
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