| Terms |
Definitions |
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pumice
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...
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Foliated: gneiss
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shale
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Silicate
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SiO3 2-
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granite
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Intrusive, felsic rock.
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"Layered rocks"
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Sedimentary rocks
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Poaternoster Lake
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Connection of streams
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vessicular
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very rapid extrusive cooling
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Richter
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scale of earthquake magnitude
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Factors in Streamflow
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-gradient=(m/km) slope
-stream-cross-sectional area=(A;m2) width & average depth
-average velocity=(V;m/s) velocity
-discharge=(Q;m3/s) how much water moving past certain point
-load=(kg/m3) dissolve material being carried
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foliation
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parallel alignment of minerals
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
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turbulent flow
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stream flow: swirling flow
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Hardness
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The mineral's resistance to scratching.
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sulfides
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have elements combined with sulfur
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uniformitarianism
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The scientific processes operating today operated in the past.
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Describe Felsic
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-silica rich
-hot
-less dense
-more viscosity or sticky
-convergent boundaries
-continental crust (not subduction)
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terminal moraine
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the furthest moraine out
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Name 2 felsic rocks
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granite, rhyolite
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Shallow foci, continents, and crustal force make
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faulting.
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high clouds
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above 6000 meters (cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus)
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End moraine
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includes terminal and recessional moraines.
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Nuclear power presently provides what portion of U.S. energy needs?
|
20%
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magma
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Hot, partially molten mixture of solids, liquids, and volatiles(gases) beneath the surface
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dendritic
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resembles branching pattern of a deciduous tree
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Age of the Earth
|
4.5 billion years
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polymorph
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substances having he same chemical composition but different crystal structures (e.g. diamond or graphite)
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Karst
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Sinkholes, roofs of caves fallen in.
-Streams disappear in sinkholes.
-Whole cave collapsed.
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Clastic
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Made of cemented and/or compressed particles
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estuaries
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inlet in which seawater (saltwater) and river water mix, created when a coastal valley was encroached by the seawater, or when the coastal area is very close to sea level. Flooding occurred because of either rising sea level or land subsidence.
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Deep water eruptions display a characteristic structure called:
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pillows
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Hydropower
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• Falling water as a power source
o At least 4,000 year history in Middle East, Egypt and China
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Tethys
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Ocean basin that was being subducted under Asia causing India to move northward.
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longitudinal waves
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also known as push-pull waves. particles that vibrate "push and pull" in the same direction that the energy is traveling, like a spring whose coils are alternately compressed and expanded.
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Thrust Mountain Belts
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Mountain belts formed from compressional stresses generated between the trench and volcanic arc
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shields
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a large relatively flat expanse of ancient metamorphic rock w/in the stabel continental interior
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Lava Flow
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When magma overflows the volcanic crater and spills onto the sides
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silicates
|
which types of minerals are most common in the earths crust
|
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Concentration Factor
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The measure of its concentration necessary for profitable mining
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Metamorphism
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the changes in mineral composition and texture of a rock subjected to high temperatures and pressures within Earth
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Contour farming
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Decreases erosive energy by having crop shapes match the topography.
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Sediment: Gravel
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Depositional Environment: High , Fast Moving Stream, Beach with Large waves
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gaining stream
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A stream in which groundwater discharges contribute significantly to the streamflow volume. The same stream could be both a gaining stream and a losing stream, depending on the conditions.
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the mid atlantic range and east pacific rise are example of
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divergent
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trench
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when the earth's plates collide and the edge of one plate slips under the edge of another plate
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Which country slammed into Asia to form the Himalayas
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India
|
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Energy
|
-Capacity to do work
-Required for all life processes
-Fuel is matter that stores energy
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Marine Deltas
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River dominated, Tide dominated, Wave dominated
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cleavage
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place between patterns where a mineral can easily break apart
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bed load
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Large particles, such as sand, pebbles, or cobbles, that bounce or roll along a stream bed. Most of the bedload only moves during periods of high discharge.
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divide
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ridge or strip of high ground separating watersheds.
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Alfred Wegener is considered
|
father of continental drift
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About 4.5 billion years ago, the newly-formed Earth was very hot and soft, causing heavier elements like iron to sink towards the center while lighter elements floated towards the surface to create th interior layering. This overall process is called chem
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True
|
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country rock from walls of magma chamber incorporated into magma -
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assimilation
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Sedimentary Rocks
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Made of pieces produssed by either a
chemical or mechanical processes
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Rocks in Low Grade
|
Green Schist, Slate, Zeolite, Chlorite, NeAl, Epidote, Chlorite, Phyllite
|
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...
|
what type of mineral and rock is deposited on limestone caves and caverns?
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Mercalli scale
|
12-step scale used to describe how earthquakes affect people, buildings and land surface
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crust
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the outer layer of the earth; includes earth's suface and ocean floors
|
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Hydrolysis occurs when:
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feldspars are chemically altered to clays
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Glacial Erosion
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Glaciers capable of great erosion and sediment transport
Glaciers erode the land in two ways (plucking, abrasion)
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chill zones
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zones in the instrusive rock adjacent to contacts with country rock where finer grained rocks indicate that magma solidified faster due to the rapid loss of heat to the cooler rock.
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how does global warming lead to more wildfires?
|
...
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The boundary between the mantle and the core lies at a depth of approximately_______.
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3000 kilometers.
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relative age
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age of an object relative to another
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Meander cutoffs
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may form when a
new, shorter channel is cut through
the narrow neck of a meander (as
during a flood)
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Bowen's Reaction Series
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Periodicity of volcanic eruptions is unrelated to ___.
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what are beaches
|
deposits of sediments along the shoreline
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physical weathering
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weathering that changes the shape and size of rocks without changing the physical makeup of the rock
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Geology
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a science that deals with the history of the earth as recorded in rocks
|
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El Nino
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An event during which trade winds weaken or even reverse and the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean becomes anomalously warm; the westward moving equatorial current weakens or reverses.
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Weathering of Quartz
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least soluable of the primary minerals
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B. Gulley erosion.
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Water creates a channel which gets bigger as the erosion continues over time
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Science assumes the natural world is...
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consistent and predictable
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What is texture?
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size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains
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controls on chemical weathering rates -
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water, temperature, latitude
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mantle
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The region that forms the main bulk of the solid Earth, between the crust and the core, ranging from depths of about 40 km to 2900 km. It is composed of rocks of intermediate density, mostly compounds of oxygen with magnesium, iron, and silicon.
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false
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t or f: large mountain systems on the continents resulted from deformation at divergent plate boundaries
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Law of Original Horizontality
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States that when originally deposited, sedimentary layers are nearly horizontal
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primary producer
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organisms in a food chain upon which all others depend directly or indirectly, primary producers are not dependent on an external source of nutrients
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dissolved load
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the portion of a stream's load carried in solution
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Intrusive igneous rock
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When magma loses its mobility before reaching the surface it eventually crystalizes also known as plutonic rocks (pluto, god of the lower world in classical mythology)
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swamps, which system?
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wetland with some flooding of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water. Lacustrine.
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geyser
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volcanoes can cause this and it is a eruption of hot water
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3 origins for universe
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i. Big Bang
ii. Oscilation
iii. Steady state
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Absaroka in Triassic
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regression of sea, strata dominated by terrestrial deposits
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cyanide heap-leaching
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A process of using cyanide to dissolve and recover gold and silver from ore.
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What holds slopes together? (8)
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-friction keeps sediment stable -cohesion-interlocking of grains-gravity keeps flatter slopes intact-surface tension; water holds stuff together like wet sand castles at the beach-plant roots-cementation-artificial structures (drains, support bars, etc).
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Axial Plane(part of fold)
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imaginary surface dividing fold in half--PLANE dividing into "symmetrical sides" of fold
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A river and valley system evolves through
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Downcutting.
Slope retreat.
Headward erosion.
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plate tectonic system
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A geosystem that includes all parts of the Earth system and all the interactions among these components needed to describe how plate tectonics works in space and time.
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Mid atlantic rift
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Ridge system in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean; on limb of the Mid-Ocean Ridge System
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metamorphic rock
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A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions
|
|
Hanging wall block down, footwall block up
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Motion of a normal fault
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Strike-Slip Fault
|
a type of fault where rocks on either side move past each other sideways with little up or down motion
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what is the name of the lineage that began human evolution
|
Homo habilis
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LOW viscocity characteristics
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gasses stream out and quiet flows and lava foundations.
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what is Radial drainage pattern?
|
On a fairly symmertrical mountain, such as a volcano or resistan pluton, drainages flow downhill and outward in all diractions (radially) awat from the highest area
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What are the 3 types of differential stress?
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Compression, Tension, and Shear
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3-4 on the Richter scale
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mild tremor, people woken up, windows broken
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lagoon & salt marshes
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a body of shallow sea water separated from the open ocean by a barrier island
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Order of Eras within Phanerozoic Eon
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Palezoic Era (sealife, plantlife, etc and 70% extinct)
Mesozoic Era (Dinosaurs)
Cenozoic Era (Present)
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Which types of mass wasting are all predominantly rapid?
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debris flows, rockslides, lahars
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The generally accepted temperature limits for metamorphism
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from about 200 degrees Celsius to the melting point of rock
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go to digital paperless
|
what is the best way to reduce paper products in landfills
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give 1 possible explanation for why the Cretaceous was so warm
|
gases from volcanoes and other greenhouse gases that were released warmed the air.
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An earthquakes magnitude is the main factor that determines the intensity of?...
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the seismic waves and thus the earthquakes potential destructiveness.
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How do pharrec rocks get precipitated?
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Pockets of oxygen get mixed w/ ocean water and iron gets access to oxygen
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what are the names of the phase changes, how do they work, and how is heat transferred?
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freezing- liquid to solid, heat is given off
melting- solid to liquid, heat is required
evaporation- liquid to gas, heat is required
condensation- gas to liquid, heat is required
sublimation(deposition)- gas to solid,
sublimation-solid to gas,
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A basic premise used in geology is...
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The present is the key to the past.
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Which of the the following is NOT true concerning scientific hypothesis?
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A single hypothesis may be considered in explaining a particular natural phenomena.
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deposition
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settling
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tectonically active
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non-equilibrium
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non-vascular
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mosses are?
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ventifacts
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flat edges/wind created
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Ocean-Ocean (Subduction)
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Japan and Phillipines
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Aa
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more viscous
rough, blocky
slow flow
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transform fault
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san andreas fault
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Atmosphere
|
Gases that envelop Earth.
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4700
|
how many known mineral species
|
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mineral
|
naturally occuring compound or chemical elements made of atoms arranged in an orderly repetitive pattern
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Jurassic Animal Life
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Ornithschia- "Bird hips"
Stegosaurs- spinal dermal plating herbivores
Saurischia/Theropods- lizard/reptile hips, bipedal, carnivores.
Sauropods- long-necked, long tailed herbivores
Allosaurus- TOP PREDATOR OF THIS PERIOD
200-146 mya
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Ductile
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Describes material that undergoes extensive plastic deformation with rupturing
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Different pressure-temperature zones within a belt of regionally metamorphosed rock are defined by the presence of _______.
|
Index minerals.
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Calamites
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joint tree (sphenopsid), in PENN
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Old Age
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1) Broad flood plain2) Convolution meanders 3) Ox-bow lakes – when the meander gets so unsaturated that the distance between two point may only be a few feet and they jump and bank to make a ox-bow lake 4) Formation of natural levees- every time the stream over flows at the lip of the stream the water doesn’t move so it drops sediment. Each time it does this the lip gets higher and higher and it takes more water to over flow
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Tarn
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A small lake in a square.
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sediment
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A material deposited at Earth's surface by physical agents (wind, water, and ice). chemical agents (precipitation from oceans, lakes, and rivers), or biological agents (organisms, living and dead).
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cut-bank
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found on the outside of meanders
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Breakwaters
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Protect limited stretches of the shoreline from waves
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insolation
|
amount of solar radiation received- differs with latitude- imbalance causes ocean currents and winds, to transfer heat from equator to poles
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epoch
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A division of geologic time representing one subdivision of a geologic period, often chosen to correspond to a stratigraphic sequence.
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Nutrients
|
Excessive nutrients released by human activity.
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Recrystallization
|
Heat or uniform stresses create larger, more perfect grains
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mosaic evolution
|
describes creatures as they evolve
|
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Non-Silicate Minerals
|
Copper, Hematite, Halite, and Sphalerite
|
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EQ magnitude
|
direct measure of earthquake strength
|
|
Climate change has expanded the habitat and food sources of migratory species thereby causing an increase in their population.
T OR F
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FALSE
|
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Glacial drift
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All sediments of glacial origin
|
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Foliation is the most easily recognized the metamorphic rock
|
texture
|
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geologist
|
a scientist who studies the forces that make and shape planet Earth
|
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basin
|
-fold shaped like bowl
-bulls eye map pattern, young rocks center, older outside
-result from crustal subsidence
|
|
4.5 billion years old
|
What is Earth's Age
|
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convergent boundary
|
boundary in which plates move together
|
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Near-Surface Disposal
|
approach to managing low-level and some intermediate waste
|
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Aquifer
|
A large body of permeable material where groundwater is present and fills all pore space
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weathering
|
the general process that breaks up rocks into fragments of various sizes by a combination of physical fracturing and chemical decomposition.
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felsic
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Describes magma or igneous rock that is rich in feldspars and silica and that is generally light in color. quartz, mica, less dense (Al)
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decompression melting
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pressure prevents atoms from breaking free of solid mineral crystals, and prevents melting.
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Double chain
|
-Amphibole group Si O
-about 60 degree and 120 degree cleavage
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oscillation ripple marks
|
result from the back-and-forth movement of surface waves in a shallow nearshore environment
|
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silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
|
four sided, pyramidal object that visually represents the four oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon atom; the basic building block of silicate minerals. Also called a silica tetrahedron or a silicon tetrahedron
|
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T/F: The concentration factor for gold is less than the concentration factor for copper.
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False
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Examples of Fossil Fuels
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coal, oil, natural gas
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glacial polish
|
smooth glistening rock durfqace formed movement sediment laden ice
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Epicenter
|
The location on Earth's surface that lies directly above the focus of an earthquake.
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hypothesis
|
a tentative explanation that is then tested to determine if it is valid
•Revise hypothesis and multiple tests lead to the formulation of a theory
•A hypothesis is a tentative or untested explanation of a given set of observations;
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quiet eruption
|
mafic magmas with low viscosity, little trapped water
lava flows extend for miles
mafic magma errupts under water - basalt pillow
|
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Drumlin
|
A low, stream-lined hill that forms when a glacier overrides its load (glacial till)
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folds
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rocks bent into series of wavelike undulations(during mtn building especially)-microscopic to hundreds of meters-result from COMPRESSIONAL stresses-->the shortening and thickening of crustPARTS:limbsaxisaxial plane
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The type of foliation characteristic of slates in which there is a parallel arrangement of fine-grained metamorphic minerals.
|
slaty cleavage
|
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URBANIZATION
|
o Pertains to human use & landslide
o Logging & clearing destabilizes slopes
o In Rio de Janeiro, logging precedes rainfall & heavy landslides
o Bench cutting, filling, & construction on slopes substantially influences the stability
|
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Drainage Basin
|
Also called a catchment or watershed; area a stream drains into
|
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groundwater
|
water found in pores of soil, narrow bedrock fractures, largest resevroir of freshwater
|
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Iron
|
What is the major element of the Earth?
|
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Competence
|
ability to carry material of a given size
|
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plates
|
large pieces of earths crust that move due to convection currents
|
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Dansgaard-Oeschger Events
|
Swings in climate on 1500 year timescales that characterized the last ice age
|
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How many oxygen ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?
|
4
|
|
Which natural cement is yellow?
|
Fe-hydoxides: limonite Fe2O3 2H2O
|
|
Covalent bonds
|
Which type of bonding occurs when atoms
share electrons?
|
|
What is weathering?
|
The physical breakdown and chemical decomposition of rock on or near our earth's surface
|
|
C
|
By what time was the Earth's magnetic field, plate tectonic system and climate in operation? A. By sometime during the Proterozoic Eon.
B. By sometime during the Holocene Epoch.
C. By sometime during the Archean Eon
D. By sometime during the Mesozoic Era
|
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False.
|
True or False? An aquifer in which there is no impermeable layer restricting the upper surface of the zone of saturation is called a confined aquifer
|
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Axial plane
|
Plane defined by connecting hinges of nested folds
|
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magnetic field
|
the region affected by the force emanating from a magnet
|
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Bioavailability
|
The quantity provided and the rate of absorption, dependent on many factors: method of preparation, co-consumption of other foods, previous intake and status, GI transit time, source
|
|
low-level nuclear wastes
|
Wastes generated in research labs, hospitals, and industry. Shallow burial in containers is sufficient to sequester this waste.
|
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The portion of a stream having the steepest gradient of slope is located:
(a) in the headwaters or source region of the stream
(b) in the region of the mouth of the stream
(c) along the entire length of the stream
(d) where teh largest numer of tribut
|
A
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Chert
|
Doesn't need to be formed in water. Rock made of crypto (skeletal, shells, etc)- crystalline quartz
|
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Cleavage
|
the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding
|
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valence electron
|
The electrons involved in the bonding process; the electrons occupying the highest principal energy level of an atom.
|
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principle of superposition
|
in terms of sedimentary rocks, each layer must be younger than the rocks below it
|
|
What are the focuses of the Earthquakes?
|
Shallow‐focus: <70 km
Intermediate‐focus: 70‐300 km
Deep‐focus: >300 km
|
|
Natural causes of climate change
|
exposed land surface
variation in earths orbit
volcanic activity
change in sun output
|
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Slumps
|
Downward slipping of a mass of rock or unconsolidated material moving as a unit along a curved surface
|
|
What happens in a thunderstorm's early stage?
|
Cumulus clouds rise.
|
|
saltation
|
sand is heavier than silt and clay and moves close to the ground in leaping patterns called ___________
|
|
what is the tendency of a mineral to break along parallel planar surfaces called?
|
cleavage
|
|
A Neanderthal skull was misidentified, and mtDNA corrected it. Where was the skull originally found?
|
Vindijia cave in Croatia
|
|
Sea floor spreading
|
Theory that the ocean floor spreads apart as new crust is formed at mid ocean ridges
|
|
What is a strike-slip fault?
|
Dominant displacement is horizontal and parallel to the trend, or strike
|
|
igneous rocks
|
rocks made from cooling magma - 'born of fire' - eg granite
|
|
clastic rocks
|
rocks that form from clasts or rock fragments getting pressed together
|
|
6 kinds of Fossils
|
1.Frozen or dried bodies:-Most fairly young ~ 1000s of years old-Wooly mammoths that became incorporated in the permafrost of Siberia-In desert climates ~ organisms become desiccated e.g. Egyptian mummies
2. Fossils preserved in amber or tar-Fossils landing on the bark of trees become trapped in the sticky sap or resin the trees produce – golden syrup envelops the insects and over time hardens into amber; amber can preserve insects, feathers for >40m yrs.-Tar similarly serves as a preservative e.g. the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles ~ large numbers of animals become mired in the tar and sunk into it. Their bones have been preserved
3. Preserved or replaced bones, teeth, and shells-Bones & shells consist of durable minerals which may survive in rock. Minerals may recrystallize or replaced by new minerals that precipitate from ground water ~ shape of bone or shell remains in the rock
4.Petrified (permineralized) organism-‘turn to stone’ ~ plant material transformed into rock-Cellulose within plant’s cell walls survive even after burial-Groundwater carries dissolved silica ~ microcrystalline quartz precipitates inside the cell walls and the plant transforms into a solid mass of chert-Fine details of the plant structure are still preserved-Petrified wood
5. Molds and casts-As sediment compacts a shell it conforms to the shape of the shell. If the shell later disappears a cavity called a mould remains-The sediment that had filled the shell also preserves the shell’s shape – cast
6.Carbonized Impressions-Flattened molds created when soft or semi soft organisms – leaves, insects, shell-less invertebrates, sponges, feathers, jellyfish – get pressed between layers of sediments-Chemical reactions remove the organic chemicals leaving only a thin film of carbon on the surface of the impression
|
|
Seismic Waves
|
a general term for the elastic waves produced by earthquakes and explosions
|
|
sedimentary rock
|
the type of rock that is made of hardened sediment
|
|
Base isolation pads
|
May be installed in the foundations of buildings to absorb earthquake vibrations and decrease shaking
|
|
igneous rock
|
any rock formed from magma as it cools and hardens
|
|
increases the rate of chemical weathering
|
the presence of organic matter...
|
|
What are pyroclastic flows?
|
A highly heated mixture, largely of ash and pumice fragments, traveling down the flanks of a volcano or along the surface of the ground.
|
|
contour mining
|
The mining of coal by cutting into and following the coal seam around the perimeter of the hill.
|
|
how old is the universe?
|
10- 18 billion years old-actually around 13.7 billion years old
|
|
define structural dome
|
a structure in which beds dip away from a central point
|
|
What is refraction?
|
bending of waves causes them to go in different directions
|
|
Bouguer anomaly
|
The variation in G due to mass of rock between the survey station and a reference datum, typically the sea level.
|
|
Which areas are prone to flashfloods
|
Canyons; Antelope Canyon, AZ August 1997 11 died Big Thompson Canyon, CO July 1976 145 died
|
|
What is Diagnesis or lification?
|
The process that turns lose sediment into rocks.
|
|
What are the hazards of basaltic eruptions?
|
falling objects, gases, volcanic ash
|
|
How many small earthquakes happen every year?
|
Many occur but go undetected by everyday life
|
|
Reflection and refraction of waves including shadow zones
|
-not all waves go through certain parts of the earth (S waves are absorbed by gas and liquid)
-tells us what the inside of the earth is like
-We hypothesize that the outer core is molten because of the way seismic waves are reflected or refracted at the interface between the mantle and the outer core, and by the dampening of S-waves collectively forming shadow zones.
|
|
What powers the hydrologic cycle?
|
The energy of the Sun because the atmosphere provides the vital link between the oceans and the continents
|
|
Steps of a convergent plate boundary
|
1. Old lithosphere gets too heavy and fractures. 2. Loser plate starts to subduct. 3. Material gets scraped off lower plate into ascretionary prism -- full blown subduction. 4. Water in minerals on top of subducting lithosphere melts. 5. Leads to volcanic island arc
|
|
even though the 1985 eruption of Nevada Del Ruiz had great prediction, what went wrong?
|
people just didn’t pay attention to the warning
|
|
What are two metamorphic changes rocks exhibit during Metamorphism?
|
New minerals form at the expense of the original minerals because of chemical changes, and the rock texture is altered by changes in size, shape, and orientation of constituent minerals
|
|
What are the four major components of the earth?
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GEOSPHERE: - rocky substance of the earth
HYDROSPHERE: The earth's water
(97%in oceans, also rivers, glaciers, lakes, etc.)
BIOSPHERE: All living organisms on earth
ATMOSPHERE: The gaseious envelope arounmd the earth
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How are Rocks at- and near the surface affected by physical weathering?
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These processes may change the color, texture, composition or strength of the materials
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vertebrate
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...
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Devonian
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Evergreens when?
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Theropoda
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Evolved into birds
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secondary sewage treatment
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decomposition
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Mass Wasting
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collapse of hillsides
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Calcite
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CaCO3
Limestone, Chalk
3 Perfect cleavage planes not at 90 degrees
Hardness of 3
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Snake
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limbless scaly elongate reptile
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intrusive igneous blobs -
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plutons
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Bishop Ussher
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earth formed 6000years
biblical geneology
tried to figure out how old earth is with bible
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what drives plate tectonics
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thermal convection
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deep-ocean trenches
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8-12km deep, Japan trench
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Rifting
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tensional pull apart of continents
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Delta (SP?CP). Grows by what?
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SP
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Thermal metamorphism
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same as contact metamorphism
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hydrolysis
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Which chemical weathering process is a
reaction between a mineral's ions and the
ions found in water?
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water table
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The boundary, approximately parallel to the Earth's surface, that separates substrate in which groundwater fills the pores from substrate in which air fills the pores. A subdued mimic of surface topography.
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intraplate earthquakes
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shallow, less than 50 km
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gravel
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Rounded particles coarser than 2 millimeters in diameter.
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cross-bedding
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a sedimentary structure consisting of bedded material deposited by currentsof wind or water and inclined at angles as large as 35 degrees from the horizontal.
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mafic
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_________ igneous rocks are silica deficient, with a relatively high content of magnesium, iron and calcium (ex basalt and gabbro)
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Asthenosphere
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Partially molten, "weak" zone within the upper mantle immediately below the lithosphere
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Lowest Region
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Marianas Trench
W. Pacific Ocean -36,000ft
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Shearing stress occurs at
A) spreading centers
B) subduction zones
C) oceanic ridges
D) transfrom faults
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D
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6 forms of mass wasting
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Slump
Rockslide
Debris Flow
Earthflow
Creep
Solifluction
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boulders and cobbles
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roll, tumble and slide
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hydrocompaction:
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The compaction of dry, low-density soils due to the heavy application of water.
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E-Horizon
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"Zone of Leaching" Typically present only in forested areas with light colored soil. Primary characteristic is loss of silicate clay, iron or aluminum, or some combination. Leaves only sand and silt particles with obliteration of all or much of the original rock.
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What is the difference between continental and oceanic crust as far as their thickness, composition, height, relative to sea level and relative amount of the Earth's surface is concerned?
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*
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Welded Tuff
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rock formed after pyroclastic rocks have cooled
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Alfred Wegener
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German Scientist
Theory was that all continents were slowly drifting around the earth
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Capacity
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the maximum load a stream can transport
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Paleontologist
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person who studies the fossils of plants, animals and other life forms.
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Sedimentary
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Rocks formed by the accumulation of debris are:
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exfoliation
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The mechanical process of spalling off or rock layers (like peeling layers off an onion).
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Triassic thecodontian reptiles included
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crocodile-like predators, armored harbivores, and small bipedal carnivores that were ancestral to dinosaurs
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natural levee
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An elevated landform composed of alluvium that parallels some streams and acts to confine their waters, except during floodstage.
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neutron
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same density as proton with no charge
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Tidal Flats
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Form in intertidal zones without strong waves
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Transform Fault Boundaries
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(conservative margins) where two plates grind past each other without the production or destruction of lithosphere
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where subduction takes place
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where subduction takes place
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valley train
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long narrow deposit stratified drift confined glacial valley
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Are tsunami generated in the same manner as normal everyday ocean waves? Yes or No
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No
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Cinder Cones
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Accumulate Tephra near the vent, relatively small, common on the flanks of larger volcanoes, along normal faults, and along crack or fissures
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albic A-horizon
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heavily leached to a white/gray color
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S waves (secondary)
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shearing - side by side
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Submarine Canyon
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Relatively narrow and deep valleys that cut into continental shelves and slopes.
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Anthropogenic flux
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human activities have risen, caused co2 emissions to rise
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Running Water
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Changes from upstream to down stream
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plasticity
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a solid that flows like a liquid
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Stream Discharge
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The volume of water flowing through a given cross section during a given time
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anaerobic
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plants can be preserved as rock under what condition?
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Orogenic Collapse
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The process in which mountains begin to collapse under their own weight and spread out laterally
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Pegmatite
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a form of igneous rock consisting of extremely coarse granite resulting from the crystallization of magma rich in rare elements
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glomar challenger
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drilled into the ocean floor to determine the age of the floor
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stratified drift depostional landforms
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-outwash plain- kettles, karnes, eskers
-glacial lake deposits- varves, dropstone
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Hydrocarbon Generation
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Process where black shale resides in the oil window and the organic material within transforms into kerogen, then into oil and gas
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Respiration in Decomposers
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the largest source through which carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Decomposers are microorganisms that live mostly in the soil but also in water, and which feed on the rotting remains of plants and animals. It is their job to consume both waste products and dead matter, during which they also return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by respiration. Decomposers not only play a key role in the carbon cycle, but also break down, remove, and recycle what might be called nature's garbage.
*the most important decomposers are bacteria and fungi*
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Anhedral Texture
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-mineral grains that have an irregular shape (no crystal form)
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fossil fuel
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general term for any hydrocarbon that may be used as a fuel, including coal, oil, natural gas, bitumen from tar sands, and shale oil
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why are geologists interested in L waves
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economic interest
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Where are rocks most likely to strain in a plastic fashion?
A) crust
B) asthenosphere
C) continental lithosphere
D) oceanic lithosphere
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B
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the vertical drop (slope) of a stream channel over a distance is called?
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gradient
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Elastic deformation
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Object will return to original shape when force is removed
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New life forms of triassic
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Mammals, scleractinian corals, lobsters & shrimp, protoavis (earliest bird?)
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Nonferrogmagnesian/felsic/light minerals
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rich in Si, Al (3+), lower density/specific gravity, tend to be lighter colored ex- feldspar, Quartz, Mica (Muscovite)
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submergent coastline
retrogradational
transgression
subsidence
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a rising sea level creates a ____---one that is flooding and receding (____)
sea level rise is caused either by the water level actually rising (called ___) or by the land getting lower (called ____)
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Equilibrium
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Material is in equilibrium if it is adjusted to the physical and chemical conditions of its environment so that it does not change or alter with time.
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Star dunes
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Confined largely to parts of the Sahara and Arabian desertsIsolated hills of sand that exhibit a complex formForm suggests star dunes develop where wind directions are variable
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runoff
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the water that flows over the surface into bodies of h2o ... when rate of rainfall greater than land's ability to absorb it
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what is Tributaries?
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• Additional channels that lead into the sea
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Acceptable Risk
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The amount of risk an individual is willing to endure in any given situation
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discharge
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= width (m) depth (m) average velocity (m/s)
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Extrusive Rock
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any igneous rock that forms at Earth's surface, whether it solidifies directly from a lava flow or is pyroclastic
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greenland and antarctica
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continental glaciers only occur in two place on earth today, which two?
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continental divide
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this extends from the yukon to mexico and seperates drainage basin east and west
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Beach cusps
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mounds of sand that stick out at regular intervals
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geologic time scale
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the division of Earth history into blocks of time--eons, eras, periods, and epochs. The time scale was created using relative dating principles.
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Divergent plate boundary
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linear or curving zones where plates move apart from one another and new lithosphere forms
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global positioning systems
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Plate motion can be measured using satellites, radar, lasers. Measurements accurate to within 1 cm. GPS routinely used because receivers are relatively inexpensive and portable. Plate motion recorded annually throughout the world. Motion rates closely match those predicted using seafloor magnetic anomalies
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sea arch
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an arch of land protruding into the sea and connected to the mainland by a narrow bridge
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External Earth processes
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sun heats land which heats up atmosphere, rain erodes the mountains that plate tectonics build up, wind creates waves
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Describe Creep?
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When grains get wet they expand and move up. When they fall back down they move down the hill.
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where is the accumulation zone?
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at the head of the glacier
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A volcanic island arc forms where...
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Oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere
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places where you find volcanos
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-subductions zones= material is hot enough to melt rock
melting with continental crust, silicon rich=very explosive
-divergent boundary=sheild and fissure
-hot spots=sheild and fissure
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What type of boundary is parallel to the direction of plate boundary?
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Transform Plate boundary.
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What are common alternative resources?
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Nuclear energy, renewable energy like wind, geothermal and hydroelectric, also coal, coal, natural gas, petroleum
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Trilobites became extince; corals, bryozoans, crinoids, and brachiopods diminished.
Crinoids skeletons make up the blue part of middle tn's limestone.
Amphibian species dwindled & fungi dominated some ecosystems.
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What happened during the Great Dying?
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Where does the Mississippi and end
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Lake Itasca ends at gulf
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Which mafic rock forms below the surface?
on the surface?
in the air?
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below: gabbro
on: basalt
air: scoria
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solar system
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a star and all the bodies held by its gravity
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3 reasons for using moment magnitude
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1. it measures bigger earthquakes better
2. better reflects total energy released
3. can be verified by field studies and seismographs
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streams cut channels 3 ways
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quarrying- the removal of blocks from the bed of the channel. this process is aided by the fracturing and weathering that loosens the blocks sufficiently so they are movable during times of high flow rates. results from impact forces exerted by water
abrasion- channel is ceaselessly bombarded by particles carried into the flow
corrosion- rock is gradually dissolved by the flowing water
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The Two primary forms of petroleum are _______ and ________. _______ Sands and _____________ gas are also included.
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Crude OilNatural GasTar SandsUnconventional gas
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Rust that develops on the underside of a car represents what type of chemical weathering?
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Oxidation
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How peat forms as an organic sedimentary rock
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an organic sedimentary rock formed from plant debris, accumulates in oxygen-poor swamps and bogs. Can form coal w/addition of heat and pressure.
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What are tectonic Plates? which of earth's shell contains them?
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The lithosphere is broken into numerous segments called tectonic plates.
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How do plutonic & volcanic rocks differ?
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Plutonic are intrusive, they cooled slowly @ depth
Volcanic are extrusive, they erupted & quickly cooled
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Hwo does Ocean floor drilling project relates to sea-floor spreading?
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The age of ocean sediment and crust.
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boundary between Archean & Proterozoic Eon
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defined by absolute age of 2.5 billion years
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Well:
Hang Dug & Problems
Drilled & Solutions
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A hole dug or drilled into the ground to obtain water
Hand dug:
Problems - Water table can change, & a hand-dug well can't be dug too deep
Drilled:
Solutions: Safety: spilled gas, oil, pesticides - the area near the surface is "cased" off so harmful things can't seep into the storage area
-has room to store water
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A hurricane acts as a heat engine, transferring heat from __.
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the warm, moist air above tropical seas into the core of the hurricane
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T/F Spheroidal weathering is a type of physical weathering.
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False. It is a type of Chemical (decomposition) Weathering.
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