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hydrophobic
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"water-fearing"; pertaining to nonpolar molecules (or parts of molecules) that do not dissolve in water.
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waxes
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effective hydrophobic coatings formed by many organisms to ward off water
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chromosome
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a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and most visible during mitosis and meiosis; also, the main gene-carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell. Chromosomes consist of chromatin.
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Fructose and Glucose are _____________of each other.
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isomers
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phospholids
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a major component of cell membranes
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what is the monomer in cellulose?
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glucose
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what is a hydrated carbon?
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a carbohydrate
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neutron
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an electrically neutral particle (a particle having no electrical charge), found in the nucleus of an atom.
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acid
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a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
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diffusion
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the spontaneous movement of particles of any kind from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated.
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lysosome
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a digestive organelle in eukaryotic cells; contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest the cell's food and wastes.
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intermediate filaments
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an intermediate-sized protein fiber that is one of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments are ropelike, made of fibrous proteins.
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lipid
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an organic compound consisting mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by nonpolar covalent bonds, making the compound mostly hydrophobic. Lipids include fats, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids and are insoluble in water.
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isomers
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organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and, therefore, different properties.
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what determines the specific properties of amino acids?
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the R groups
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what is the general molecular formula for monomers?
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Cn(H20)n
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atom
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the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
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electron
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a subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge. One or more electrons move around the nucleus of an atom.
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nucleus
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(1) an atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons.
(2) the genetic control center of a eukaryotic cell.
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radioactive isotope
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an isotope whose nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.
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solution
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a liquid consisting of a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, consisting of a dissolving agent, called the solvent, and a substance that is dissolved, called the solute.
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endocytosis
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the movement of materials into the cytoplasm of a cell via membranous vesicles or vacuoles.
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chromatin
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the combination of DNA and proteins that constitutes chromosomes; often used to refer to the diffuse, very extended form taken by the chromosomes when a eukaryotic cell is not dividing.
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nuclear envelope
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a double membrane, perforated with pores, that encloses the nucleus and separates it from the rest of the eukaryotic cell.
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glycoprotein
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a macromolecule consisting of one or more polypeptides linked to short chains of sugars.
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capsule
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a sticky layer that surrounds the bacterial cell wall, protects the cell surface, and sometimes helps glue the cell to surfaces.
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mitochondria
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an organelle in eukaryotic cells where cellular respiration occurs. Enclosed by two concentric membranes, it is where most of the cell's ATP is made.
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hydrocarbons
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a chemical compound composed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen.
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pleated sheet
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the folded arrangement of a polypeptide in a protein's secondary structure.
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disaccharide
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a sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides linked by a dehydration reaction.
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nucleic acid
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a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular structures and activites. The two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA.
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The molecular formula of glucose and fructose is ____________________.
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C6H12O6
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what are the monomers of starch & cellulose?
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glucose
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what is the molecular formula for the three monosacchardies studied?
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C6H1206
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tertiary substructure
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1. overall shape of an individual protein; 2. usually called globular (combination of helices & pleats) or fibrous (entirely pleated; 4. most proteins are globular; 5. held together by covalent (S-S) bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, & hydrophobic bonds (interactions)
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temperature
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a measure of the intensity of heat, reflecting the average kinetic energy or speed of molecules.
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covalent bond
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an attraction between atoms that share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons; symbolized by a single line between the atoms.
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hypotonic solution
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in comparing two solutions, the one with the lower concentration of solutes.
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microtubules
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the thickest of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a straight, hollow tube made of globular proteins called tubulins. Microtubules from the basis of the structure and movement of cilia and flagella.
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granum
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a stack of hollow disks formed of thylakoid membrane in a chloroplast. Grana are the sites where light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and converted to chemical energy during the light reactions of photosynthesis.
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microfilament
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the thinnest of the three main kinds of protein fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a solid, helical rod composed of the globular protein actin.
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prokaryotic flagella
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a long surface protection that propels a prokaryotic cell through its liquid environment; totally different from the flagellum of a eukaryotic cell.
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nucleoid region
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the region in a prokaryotic cell consisting of a concentrated mass of DNA.
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carbonyl group
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in an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of a carbon atom linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom.
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secondary structure
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the second level of protein structure; the regular patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.
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carboxyl group
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in an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of an oxygen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to a hydroxyl group.
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monomer
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a chemical subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer.
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phospholipid
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a molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.
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peptide bond
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the covalent linkage between two amino acid units in a polypeptide; formed by a dehydration reaction.
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in what state are sat. fatty acids of 10+ carbon atoms?
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solid
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primary substructure
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1. strongest structure of all four; 2. sequence of amino acids; 3. held together by peptide bonds
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PREFIXES
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(# of carbons in the longest chain) 1. METH; 2. ETH; 3. PROP; 4. BUT; 5. PENT; 6. HEX; 7. HEPT; 8. OCT; 9. NON; 10. DEC
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aqueous solution
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a solution in which water is the solvent.
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ion
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an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, thus acquiring an electrical charge.
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hydrogen bond
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a type of weak chemical bond formed when the partially positive hydrogen atom participating in a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the partially negative atom participating in a polar covalent bond in another molecule (or in another part of the same macromolecule).
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passive transport
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the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane, without any input of energy.
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tonicity
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the ability of a solution to cause a cell within it to gain or lose water.
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endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
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an extensive membranous netwrok in a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studdded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions.
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rough endoplasmic reticulum
(rough ER)
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a network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm. Rough ER membranes are studded with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins. The rough ER constructs membrane from phospholipids and proteins.
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double helix
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the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a psiral shape.
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Distinguish between polymers and monomers.
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-a single molecule-the single molecules join together (by dehydration reaction) to form polymers
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examples of sat. fats solid at room temp
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butter & lard
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carbonyl group (2)
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1. --C=O; 2. sugars usually contain 1 carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups
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atomic number
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the number of protons in each atom of a particular element.
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pH scale
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a measure of the relative acidity of a solution, ranging in value from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic). The letters pH stand for potential hydrogen and refer to the ocncentration of hydrogen ions (H+).
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smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth ER)
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a network of interconnected membranous tubules in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm. Smooth ER lacks ribosomes. Enzymes embedded in the smooth ER membrane function in the synthesis of certain kinds of molecules, such as lipids.
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What type of bond links amino acids together forming a polypeptide?
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A peptide bond
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what are the elements in fats?
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carbon & hydrogen are predominate (very little oxygen); on 1 side is a carboxylic acid
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polynucleotide & how it is bonded
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1. composed of nucleotide monomers formed by dehydrated reaction; 2. phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of the next phosphate which results in repeating sugar phosphate backbone in polymer
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in what state are sat. fatty acids of
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liquid at physiological temp
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plasmodesma, plural: plasmodesmata
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an open channel in a plant cell wall, through which strands of cytoplasm connect from adjacent walls.
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What does “hydrophilic” mean and why is it important for functional groups to have this characteristic in living things?
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"Water loving." It's important since they are near water (in our bodies)
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Distinguish between the function and molecular structure of the following types of lipids: phospholipids, waxes, and steroids.
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-major component of cell membranes, structurally similar to fats (two fatty acids attached to glycerol with a negatively charged phosphate group)-***-a lipid with a carbon skeleton of four rings
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What is protein diversity based on?
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The different arrangements of amino acids
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branches in starch vs. glycogen vs. cellulose
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starch (helical shape): may be branches or unbranched; glycogen : more highly branched than starch; cellulose (rod shape, cellulose molecules parallel to each other) : unbranched
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how to name double/triple bonds:
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1. find double bond on carbon number (2); 2. longest chain of carbons (5 - pent); 3. double bond (-ene) -- 2 PENTENE
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Which of the functional groups do not contain carbon? Which are not polar molecules?
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Hydroxyl, amino, and phosphate groups
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what are the 5 types of nitrogenous bases (Under The Car Are Gears)?
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adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine or uracil
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difference in bonds b/w saturated fats & unsaturated fats
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saturated fats have no double bonds b/w carbons, while unsaturated fats include many double bonds b/w carbons
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what elements are lipids mostly made of?
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carbons & hydrogens linked by nonpolar covalent bonds
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Even though too much cholesterol is not good for us, contributing to blockage of the arteries, it is still a necessary molecule. Explain why.
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It's a starting material for making other steroids, like sex hormones.
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what is the result of cellulose & starch having no side chains?
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a series of stiff, elongated fibrils (perfect for building cell walls of plants)
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why can starch store glucose?
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b/c of it is insoluble in water & has a large molecule size
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What did Linus Pauling contribute to science?
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He won 2 nobel prizes, made advances in cures for sickle cell, discovered secondary structure of protein, and helped produce a ban on nuclear testing.
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What is the purpose of lactase in our bodies?
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Lactase helps the digestive system break down lactose
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what is the name of the fatty acids in a phospholipid & the name of phosphate portion?
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1. tails (hydrophobic); 2. head (hydrophilic)
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what does the hydrolysis of starch and what does this thing break down?
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amylases (NOT a carb). it breaks down the amylose in starch
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A protein has four levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Describe each.
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1. the order of amino acids in a chain2. coiling chain into an alpha helix or pleated sheet3. 3D of a polypeptide (R groups). 4. two or more polypeptide chains
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How does the shape of DNA differ from RNA?
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RNA is usually a single strand while DNA is a double helix
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