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Definitions |
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Mammogram example
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Rods and cones
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-photoreceptors
-photochemical reaction takes place inside the cell when exposed to light
-rods detect BRIGHTNESS
-cones are concentrated at the fovea
-blue, red, green cones
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two visual pathways
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-dorsal=where (parietal)
-ventral=what (temporal)
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Perceptual constancies
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-example of paradoxical correspondence
-is our tendency to see objects as having constant shape, size, or color regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting
-so the image of the distal stimulus on retina changes, but perception remains stable
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Introspectionism
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-one solution the problem
-just look inside and see the contents of the mind
-emphasis on analysis of consciousness into its constituent parts
-inspired by chemistry (periodic table)
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Behaviorism
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-solution to the unobservable mind
-psychology is the "science of behavior"
-emphasized what can be DIRECTLY observed
-stimuli
-responses
-reinforcements/rewards
-rats in mazes
-ignores the mind because it is unobservable
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morphemes
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-smallest unit that signals meaning
-prefixes, suffixes, roots
-can be entire words
-may not stand alone
-rules of a language say how they can be combined
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analogy
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-a correspondence between two situations, problems or concepts
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Mental set
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-also called entrenchment
-getting stuck in the rut of using a particular type of problem rep. can hinder you from switching to using a different, more effective type of rep.
-Ex: Luchins' Water Jar problem
(stuck using equation B-A-2C)
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The McGurk effect
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-phoneme perception
-language perception is visual in addition to auditory
-(top down processing)
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what properties characterize language?
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communicative
arbitrary symbolic
regularly structured
structured at multiple levels
productive/generative/creative
dynamic (new words added to dictionary)
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selective attention
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-processing relevant inputs, thoughts, or actions while ignoring irrelevant or distracting ones
-focusing on one thing and ignoring others
-ex: trying to study while tv is on
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divided attention
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-required for distributing cognitive resources during multi-tasking
-ex: listening to lecture and taking notes
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Independent variable
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-what the experimenter manipulates
-# of items to be memorized
-amount of alcohol ingested
-has LEVELS
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Change blindness
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-limit of attention
-transient events attract attention automatically
-flicker causes lots of transients, attention to those prevents attention to the changed item (flicker task video)
-attention to one task reduces attention available for detecting changes (basketball/gorilla)
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Wernicke's aphasia
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aka. sensory or receptive aphasia
-impairement in the COMPREHENSION of language produced by oneself or others
-speech is fluent but nonsensical (word salad)
-speech is syntactically and intonation correct
-speech full of phonemic and semantic errors
-neoligisms: made up words
-lack of awareness of language impairment
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Motherese
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-adults help kids by speaking "motherese"
-high pitch, slow rate, exaggerated intonations
-falling pitch and pausing signals phrase boundaries
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Broca's aphasia
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-nonfluent, expressive, or motor aphasia
-difficulty in the PRODUCTION of language
-speech is non-fluent, slow, labored
-"telegraphic" speech: only use content words
-word finding difficulty
-comprehension intact
-abnormal intonation
-aware of problem
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words
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-combinations of one or more morphemes
-a single word can have multiple meaning
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Base rate neglect
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-descriptive reasoning
-we often ignore base rates (the overall prevalence of cancer)
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deductive reasoning
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-deterministic
-based on rules of logic, conclusions that must be true given the facts
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Potts Experiment
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-teach subjects pairs of facts
-subjects respond T/F
-result: further apart the pair, faster reaction time
-"distance effect"
-subjects dont reason normatively
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meaning
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-related to concepts and categories (LTM)
-words represent or symbolize concepts
-meanings of sentences: words must be grouped into phrases, relationship between words
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Availability heuristic
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-things that are easily remembered/brought to mind are judged to be more prevalent than events that are less easily brought to mind
-When availability works:
-Subjects given category (Russian novelists vs. flowers)
-Result: correlation between estimate and actual retrieval nearly perfect
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Models of Selective Attention
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1. Filter models
-early selection
-late selection
2. Attentional Spotlight Model
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Magno and Parvo
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-Magno: transient response, large receptive field, movement/location
-Parvo: sustained response, small rec. field, patterns/color/form
-send info to occipital visual cortex
which sends info to dorsal (parietal) or ventral (temporal) stream
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Paradoxical correspondence
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-when proximal stimulus DOES NOT correspond to the distal stimulus
-Buuuut (paradoxically) the perceptual experience does
-ex: there is a box (distal stimulus), in your mind it is a rectangle (proximal stimulus), but your percept is also a box (representation)
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The stage model of cognition
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stimulus-->info processing-->more process
-->response
-Each stage RECEIVES info, TRANSFORMS the info, and SENDS info to next stage
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Lack of correspondence
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-perceptual experience does not correspond to the distal stimulus
-perceptual illusions
-failure to perceive the accurate
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Problems with Template theory
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1. Transformations
2. Obstructed objects
3. not biologically plausible
-the visual system decomposes the visual world into features
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PET study
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-spatial task (where) should activate occipital and PARIETAL
-object task (what) should activate occipital and TEMPORAL region
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Chess study
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-experts memory for RANDOM board configurations no better than that of novies
(don't just have greater memory capacity)
-experts memory for ACTUAL board config. much better than that of novices
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Perspective and availability
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-perspective can influence the availability of certain events: we remember what WE do more easily than we remember what OTHERS do
-Ex: Study of married couples
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Response chaining
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-feedback from one movement triggers the next one
-evidence against:
-speed (movement sequences occur too quickly)
-anticipation movements in typing (keystrokes overlap in time)
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telegraphic stage
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-two word utterances
-correct use of word order:
-subject-action
-action-object
-can convey a lot of info briefly and clearly
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Tap Dancing
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-sub programs are not reusable
-to perform, person needs to acquire higher order abstract program ABAA
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Bayes Theorum
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-using Bayes theorum is normative behavior
-Take 3 things into account:
1. the base rate: probability of hypothesis independent of evidence
2. The hit rate: probability of evidence if hypothesis is true
3. the false alarm rate: probability of evidence if hypothesis is not true
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Lexical access
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-When does CONTEXT have its effect?
1. "dumb retrieval": get all possible word meanings from lexicon, context then guides selection of correct meaning
2. "smart retrieval": context guides access to the lexicon, so only retrieve ONE meaning for a word
-"dumb retrieval" proved by Swinney Experiment
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Denying the antecedent
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(conclusion does not follow logically)
If P, then Q
NOT P
therefore, NOT Q
(20% error rate, cant conclude anything)
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holophrastic stage
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-one word utterances
-no syntax, need context to disambiguate
-do understand some phrases
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affirming the consequent
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(conclusion does not follow logically)
If P, then Q
Q
Therefore, P
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Driving and Cell phone use
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-Peripheral interference hypothesis (outside the brain): interference from using hands to hold or dial phone; moving eyes off the road
-Attentional hypothesis: diverting attention from driving to the conversation itself
-conclusion from the driving simulator study: attentional hypothesis is correct
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Color constancy
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-our perception of an objects color remains constant under different conditions of illumination
-ex: shade from a tree on the sidewalk
-sidewalk (distal stimulus) is differring by color (proximal stimulus) but perceived as the same
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Problems with introspectionism
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1. observations are difficult to verify
-private events, not public
-objective science requires that observations can be confirmed independently
2. you are observing the end products of processing, but not the processing itself
-many processes are not accessible to conscious awareness
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Size constancy
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-our perception of size stays constant regardless of the fact that size of objects on the retinal vary greatly with DISTANCE
-example: seeing one person up close and another far away
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Donder's subtractive method
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-subtract detective reaction time from choice reaction time to determine the time for the decision stage
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Donder's experiment
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-Detection task: tap right finger when you see a red or green light
-proposed stages: S-->detection-->response
-Choice task: tap L finger for red, tap R finger for green
-proposed stages: S-->detection->decision-->R
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Broca's area
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-motor planning area (part of premotor cortex)
-contains the motor programs for words
-programs actually executed by primary motor cortex
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The monty hall problem
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-prize behind the door problem
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Development: phonemes
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-in 1st year, infants can discriminate all phonemes from all languages
-gradually lose discrimination that are not important to own language
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language is complex
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-comprehend and generate millions of sentences
-know > 100,000 words
-no other species does this
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Experts vs. novices
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1. Experts develop better problem representations
(spend more time setting up the problem)
2. Experts use analogies
3. Experts knowledge is better organized and elaborated
4. Automatization
(practice converts controlled processes-> automatic processes)
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power law of practice
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-speedup with practice
-rate of improvement diminishes with time
-it takes a VERY long time to achieve the small amount of improvement that separates really good from great
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Referential ambiguity
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-the same word/phrase can refer to different objects
"John grabbed his lunch, sat on a rock, and ate it"
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syntactic ambiguity
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-words can be grouped together into more than one phrase structure
"I saw the gorilla in my pajamas
-two different phrase structures
"they are (cooking apples)"
"they (are cooking) apples"
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Problem
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-consists of initial state in which a person begins and a goal state that is to be attained
-plus a non-obvious way of getting from one to the other
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Understanding perception
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-a theory of perception must be able to explain the phenomena of lack of correspondence and paradoxical correspondence
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assumption of additivity
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-The durations of all stages add together to yield the reaction time (stages are serial)
-Problem: stages might operate in parallel
-leads to underestimate time
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pattern recognition theories
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-must explain how we recognize objects from many diff. viewpoints
-Bottom-up theories: Template theory and feature theory
-do NOT incorporate the influence of biases or expectations
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shape constancy
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our perception of the shape of an object remains constant despite changes caused by movement relative to the viewer
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summary of theories
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-theories about why people do better on the real-world versions of the Wason task than abstract
-concreteness
-familiarity
-pragmatic reasoning schemas (permission/obligation)
-social contract schemas (cheaters/threats)
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Heuristics and stereotypes
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-availability: who gets in more car accidents
-representativeness: in selecting job candidates, maintain the good-old-boys club
-simulation: which suspect can you simulate more easily having committed the crime
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functional fixedness
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-seeing an object as having only a fixed, familiar function
-ex: Duncker's Candle problem (subjects were fixed on the function of the box as holder of tacks)
-Maier's two-rope problem (functional fixedness of the wrench)
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4 reasoning rules
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Ex: The game is cancelled...what can we conclude?
-2 of 4 rules are VALID
-follow logic, always word
-2 of 4 are NOT VALID
-not based on logic, dont always lead to correct reasoning
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learning rules: past tense
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-U-shaped curve for irregular past (went)
-initially use appropriate form (went)
-learn rule and overgeneralize (go-ed)
-relearn correct past tense (went)
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Famous names experiment
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-using availability as a stand-in for frequency doesnt always give us the right answer. This is because availability can be affected by things other than frequency
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critical period effects
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-people who learn language after age 10 never acquire native ability
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computational model of the mind
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-underlying assumption: the mind is somehow like a computer
-get information from
1.sensory data,
2. mental representations
a. procedural: knowing how
b. declarative: knowing that
-semantic: general knowledge
-episodic: personal experience
-processes: operators that transform info from one state to another (ex: word to image)
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creating a YES bias
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-increase # of hits and false alarms
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Visual search task
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-feature search (does NOT depend on # of distractors)
-conjunction search (DOES depend on # of distractors)
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top-down influence in object recognition
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1. The influence of environmental context
-interactive activation theory
2. The influence of motivation/bias
-signal detection theory
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Occulomotor depth cues
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-rely on feedback from the muscles of the eye
-binocular (convergence)
-monocular (accomodation)
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Ganglion cells
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-M and P cells pass to the lateral geniculate
-Magnocellular and parvocellular
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associative stage of skill acquisition
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-strengthen connections that lead to desired result
-get rid of actions that lead to errors
-feedback is very important at this stage
-movements start to transition from declarative knowledge to procedural knowledge
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Difference reduction heuristic
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-At any point, select an operator that moves you closer to the goal state
-ex: do not go from ann arbor to chicago to get to paris
-However, sometimes solving a problem requires you to temporarily move away from the goal state
(Hobbits and orcs problem)
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cheater detection and emotion
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-in some conditions people do better if theyre mad
-males do better after playing soccer
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Two theories of reasoning
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-normative: how one ought to reason (optimal based on logic or math)
-descriptive: how one actually reasons (describes what people really do)
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Tonal language and pitch
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-native speakers of a tonal language (Mandarin) are more likely to have perfect pitch
-maybe evidence that there is a critical period to learning perfect pitch like there is for learning language
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Context effects in lexical access (Swinney Experiment)
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-condition 1: lexical decision immediately after ambiguous word (bug)
-results: initially get priming of both meanings
(ant, spy < sew)
-condition 2: lexical decision delayed from time of ambiguous word
-results: after time passes, "bug" primes only the relevant meaning
(ant<spy=sew)
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conjunction fallacy due to simulation
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-Ex: Mr. F and heart attacks
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Types of simulation heuristics
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-the ease of imagining cause and effect
-mother/daughter eye color ex.
-causal link between action and actor
-Helen car accident ex.
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Word superiority task Results
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-fewer errors in word than in single letter
-fewer errors in non word (pronounceable) than in single letter
-fewer errors in word than in non-word
-same number of errors in single letter and unpronounceable words
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Cells of the retina
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-light enters and passes the layers to the back of the eye
-photoreceptor layer (rods/cones)
-bipolar cell layer
-ganglion cell layer
-to brain
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Prediction of feature theory
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-Objects that share a lot of features should be harder to tell apart than objects that done
-the decision demon will have a harder time deciding who is shouting loudest
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Resource Model of attention
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-when two tasks come from the same pool of attentional resources, hard to perform simultaneously
-when two tasks come from diff. pools, easier
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assumption of pure insertion
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-all stages remain the same when the new one is added
-Problem: adding the decision stage may influence another stage (like detection)
-leads to overestimate time
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Motor program experiment: Henry and Rogers
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-Task: learn movement sequences that vary in complexity
-Results: time to release kay increased with the complexity of the movement sequence
-conclusion: we retrieve a seq. of movements (motor program) all at once and then execute them
**response chaining not supported
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Picking out relevant information
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-our initial rep. of a problem may contain both relevant and irrelevant info
-irrelevant info may distract us from attaining a solution
-one aspect of expertise is the ability to pick out relevant info and ignore irrelevant
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Huppert & Piercy: Experiment 1
amnesics and controls
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-Task: study pics for 1 sec each, recognition task 20 minutes later
-results: controls 93% accurate, amnesics 75% accurate
-Possible impaired processes
1. encoding (dont learn the info)
2. storage (dont retain the info)
3. retrieval (dont access the info)
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availability bias and ease of retrieval
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-things that are easier to retrieve are judged to be more frequent
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Assumption that you already know that the stages are
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-Problem: you might not know what the stages are
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