| Terms |
Definitions |
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hutton
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gradualismchangesgelogy
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plesiomorphy
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earlier trait
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synapomorphy
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syn=shared, apo=derived, morphy=formderived traits that are shared among a group of organisms
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Idealism
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Plato, two worlds
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Fossil record
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fossils are rare..
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jumping genes
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transposons
read about this?
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end Pleistocene extinction events (date?)
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65-13KA
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orthologous
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same genes in different species
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Wrote Principles of Geology-influenced Darwin
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Lyell
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parsimony
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phylogenetic tree with fewest evolutionary changes is most likely to be right
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Evidence supporting evolution
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fossil record
anatomical record
molecular record
artificial selection
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Lamarck's Theory of Evolution
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environment changes
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stromatolites
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colonies of prokaryotic bacteria that create a hard structure on which they live. (created 1st ecosystems?)3.5BA (Pre-Cambrian; oldest fossil prokaryotes)
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fossil
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preserred remains of envidence of ancient organisms
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Comparitive Anatomy
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Organisms with similar structural anatomy
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nodes
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points where lineages split, ancestral ineage divides into two or more derived lineages
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Fossil evidence indicates that horses have gradually increased in size over geologic time. Which of the following terms best describes this?a. artificial selectionb. stabilizing selectionc. sexual selectiond. disruptive selectione. directional selection
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E
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gene frequency
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decimal fraction representing the presence of an allele in a population
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sympatric speciation
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genetic polymorphism present within lager population
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Lamarck
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- proposed that similar species descended from a common ancestor- hypothesized that acquired traits were passed on to offspring- first to state that types of organisms change over time & new types of organisms are modified descendants of older types
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Quantitative Traits
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-continuous distribution, not discrete (ie. height)
-genotype at multiple loci and environment
East examined 454 F2 plants, did not observe parental phenotype
-by 5th generatin had range of parental phenotypes
-used tobacco.. crosed two lengths... got an intermediate length.
-selected for short and long from intermediate offspring, and got parents back
*crossing an RR with an rr will yield a 1:2:1 genotype distribution
-this is with one gene, gets WAY more complicated with 3 genes
-as you add more loci, you increase the number of possible phenotypes
QTL- quantitative trait loci
-loci responsible for height in humans, colour in wheat, etc
QTL mapping is physically locating the genes
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Adaptation
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A characteristic that an organism inherits that makes it easier to survive and reproduce in its environment.
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theory
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a coherent group of general propositions used as principles of explanation for a class of phenomena:
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homologous structure
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Body parts that are structurally similar in related species, but may serve different purposes; provide evidence that the structures were inherited from a common ancestor.
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mutations
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spontaneous mutation rate = one in 10^5 of 10^6 gametes
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Problems with CSC
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Requires thorough understanding of cohesive mechanisms at work within species.
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Lamarack's Ideas
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he stated whatever physical features your parents have offspring ill hav them. but you can only pass on genes that are NOT somatic.
-use and dissuse
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how many tupes of transversions are there?
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8
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monogamy
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one male, one female; not always matched for life but always within a single breeding season
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. A biologist studied a population of squirrels for 15 years. During that time, the population was never fewer than 30 squirrels and never more than 45. Her data showed that over half of the squirrels born did not survive to reproduce, because of competit
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E
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Mutation
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Ultimate source of variation within a population.
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resource defense
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male defends territory, where female gets resources - impala, for example
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Fisher, Wright, Haldane
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-combined natural selection with Mendelian inheritance
population genetics: how one species becomes two
-this was in the 1930s... DNA discovered in 50s
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What is natural selection?
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Survival of the Fittest
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populational change
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Darwin's thesis; evolution occurs by changes in proportions of individuals w/in a population that have different inherited characteristics
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morphological species concept
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Defining species by measurable anatomical criteria.
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EDA locus
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stickleback pelvic girdle, mouse, and humans
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What evidence of evolution is: all organisms use ATP in energy transfer
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biochemical
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population
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assemblage of a specific type of organism living in a given area
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six forms of isolation
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Habitat Isolation- same area, different habitats
Temporal Isolation- mate at different times
Behavioral Isolation- different mating rituals
Mechanical Isolation- anatomical differences
Gametic Isolation- sperm and egg will not form a zygote
Regional isolation- when a structure, such as a road, divides a population until they can no longer mate
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hybrid breakdown (postmating)
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offspring of hybrids have reduced viability or fertility
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Bracketing the fossils
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dating the shit around it instead
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Directional
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when a population shifts left or right together
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Artificial Selection
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selection by humans for breeding of useful traits from the natural variation among different organisms
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Charles Darwin was the first person to proposea. that evolution occurs.b. a mechanism for how evolution occurs.c. a way to use artificial selection as a means of domesticating plants and animals.d. that the Earth is older than a few thousand years.e. a me
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E
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evolution
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any change in the frquency of an allele
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Regulatory genes
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genes that control the expression and suppression of other genes
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Allopatric speciation
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barrier is formed, variety develops in isolation
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Bogeography in North America
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ISTHMUS OF PANAMA
-South Merican species evolved in isolation for ~135my
-species affectd differntly
-filter routes
GREAT AMERICAN INTERCHANGE
-late Miocene (6-7mya) isthmus was a series of islands
-second group dispersed after land bridge formed (2-5mya)
-dispersal equal at first, but later increased dispersal into South America
GLACIATION
-Pleistocene 2-8mya
-3 main sheets
-innuitian (north)
-cordilleran (west)
-laurentide (east)
-land bridges
-sea levels
BERINGIA
-large refugium in North Pacific
-connected Nearctic and Palearctic
-cold-adapted species, but warmer than today with cold temperate climate
-major source of colonists
REFUGIA
-multiple refugia
-Beringia
-nunataks (mountain tops)
-coastal refugia.. NW coast, eastern
-large southern refugium
-driftless refugium
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What are analogous structures?
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Structures for the same function/purpose with different origins
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Comparative Anatomy
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proves common ancestry DNA and Amino acis show similarites and differences amoung organisms at molecular level
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List examples of microevolution?
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Natural Selection,Types of Selection ,Industrial Melanism andSpecies Formation
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phenotype depends on what between alleles?
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nature of interaction
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Polygenetic Inheritance
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Two or more genes contribute to the phenotypic expression of a single characteristic.
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geographic isolation
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when 2 populations are able to breed but are seperated by barries
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results in a population that was endangered but now protected
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low genetic variation
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define linkage
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genes for two or more traits located on the same chromosome
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Almost all living organisms have the same triplet DNA code and many similar proteins. This is an example of evolution based on:
A. the fossil record
B. biogeography
C. comparative anatomy
D. comparitive embryology
E. comparitive biochemistry
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E. comparitive biochemistry
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Sexual Selection: Male-male competition
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When males fight to determine dominance and strength to win female mate
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Penguins and Chewing Lice
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Circumpolar area of both hemispheres (wide distribution.. good chance of interaction)
>50 seabird host species (generalist parasite)
-seabird hosts found in dense and predictable colonies
-every year return to same colony
-northern hosts are gulls and penguins, southern hosts are penguins
-8 microsatellite loci
-existence of sympatric tick races specialised on each host
-ticks very remote in microsatellites... little gene flow
-would not see this pattern with high levels of gene flow
-no structure geographically
-high levels of gene flow b/w birds
-Because they are only attached for two weeks, breeding season
-birds stay local at this time
-chances of falling off onto another island is ow
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What is micro evolution?
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Small changes, Changes in the frequency of an allele in a population
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Maynard Smith's null model
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Smith studied populations like aphids, which are able to choose b/w asexual and sexual
-a population will have asexual and sexual reproduction if both
1)produce the same number of offspring
2)sets of offspring have same probability of survival
Assumption 1
-if equal number f ofspring for sexual and asexual, the number of asexual individuals will increase
-this is a two-fold cost of sex
Assumption 2
-offspring survival for sexuals is greater than asexual if selection exists
-sexuals able to create new combinations of alleles
***Recombination acceerates the rate of evolution
-creats beneficial mutations with different origins
-asexual must wait for mutation.... takes longer to occur
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Homology
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Possession by two or more species of a character state derived, with or without modification, from their common ancestor.
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All alleles of all the genes within a population define that population's ?
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Gene Pool
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what is a polygeneic trait?
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single phenotypic trait controlled by more than one loci
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Difference among Archaeopteryx and modern birds- what modern birds have that Archaeopteryx don't
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1. Expanded braincase and fused bones2. Fusion and reduction of digits3. Fusion of pelvic bones and vertebrate4. Reduction in number of tail vertebrae5. Enlarged, keeled sternum6. Processes that strengthen the ribs
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Sexual Selection and Sypatric Speciation
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Promotes divergence because it affects gene flow directly
-drosophila silvestris and heteroneura have different heads... some males butt heads, while some stand and fight.
One Possible Scenario...
Ancestor with normal head, lek mating system, females mate with winner of competition
-mutation in 1 population, head-butting males
... lek mating system, females mate with winner of competition (head-butting)
-mutatnt allele increases to fixation, other traits develop
-leads to mals with wider spaces eyes
-ancestral population led to males with normal eyes
-in D.heteroneura, wider head = more copulations!
Tilapia
-5 forms, considered 1 species
-2 of them are near end of speciation process
-common ancestor 10kya, same breeding colouration, time and sites
-size assorative mating (small males mate with small females, and large /w large)
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5 agents of evolutionary change
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mutation - changes DNA sequence
-creates variation
2. gene flow - movement of alleles and individuals in and out of populations
ex- seed and pollen distribution, migration of animals
3. non random mating - sexual selection
4. genetic drift - chance events (founder effect + bottleneck)
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this is used to determine the age of fossils
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radioactive dating
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Describe types of Genetic Variation at the molecular level (in haplotypes and in genes).
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In haplotypes:
1. point mutation
2. indel - ie. Huntington's Disease
In genes:
1. synonymous substitution - no a.a. change
2. nonsynonymous substitution - a.a. change
3. frameshift
4. microsatellites (SSRs) - usu. in noncoding areas; high mutation rate due to replication slippage (easy for polymerase to err with many repeats); used as genetic markers
5. recombination - crossing-over
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Consequences of hybrid formation
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-New species when hybrid is more fit than one parent-nonviable hybrid; dies out
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What was D's first school experience?
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He attended Shrewsbury School in England. He attended with is brother and they were a little bored by it. They had other projects outside of school that they worked on and learned from together.
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Whats is the genetic evidence for nateraul selection?
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Similarity in protein structure indicates a common ancestry. The amino acid sequence of cytochrome c, an ancient protein common to all aerobic organisms.DNA Comparison
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Parallel by analogy between natural selection and species selection
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Here "fitness" would be described as relative speciation success, and a fit lineage would speciate faster or display lesser extinction rates. However, is not a cuasual factor in macro. Natural selection does cause microevolution, species selection does not cause macroevolution because micro occurs in a closed set (HW) principal whereas species selection operates in an open set.
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Difficulties in tree building 3)
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Erasure of the traces of history -the process of evolution often erases the traces of prior evolutionary history
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Who was Darwin's first influence at EU? What concept did he introduce to D? How did this relationship develop?
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Robert Grant, professor of natural history. Introduced D to Lamarkian theory, snails and sponges. As time progressed D grew to dislike Grant and became critical of his ideas.
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What is the red queen hypothesis
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States that its necessary for species to continuously evolve in order to maintain their place in nature. Evolutionary arms race results in adaptations and counter-adaptations
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Pax6 in mice vs eyeless in flies
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-pax6 gene and eyeless gene are orthologs-mutation in pax6 in eyeless flies -> eyeless-Proof: putting pax6 in flies turned on eye-making genes -> grew an eye
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What determines the magnitude of gene flow among pops?
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the parameter "m", which is the proportion of individuals (or genes) that enter a pop from a different pop
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What are the 2 types of mimicry?
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Mullerian - both benefit from it, help each other, both harmfulBatesian - a harmless organism mimics a harmful one, mimic hurts original
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Who came up with cladistics in the 1960s?
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Hennig came up with cladistics in the 1960s.
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paleontologist
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Godwanaland forms
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Cambrian
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anaerobic
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not requiring oxygen
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Homo neanderthalensis arose in
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Europe
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RNA
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(ribonucleic acid) single-stranded nucleic acid molecule involved in translating DNA into proteins; polymer made up of subunits called nucleotides; characteristics: (1) can act as a catalyst (ribozyme), (2) reproduce itself, (3) bind to amino acids, (4) make chains of amino acids (protein)
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Beneficial
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conferring benefit; advantageous; helpful
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Primitive homology___
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reflect distant common ancestry
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bipedal
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walking upright on two legs
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Prezygotic Barrier
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reproductive isolation; prevents mating
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Vestigial genes
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(pseudogenes and endogenous retroviruses); remaants of shared mutatios found in related organisms, genetic code similar to functional genes but have lost function due to mutations. MANY INTRON SEQUENCES= NONFUNCTIONAL PSEUDOGENES.
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Population Principle
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Nature demonstrates that prgress is only possible with enormous suffering and sacrifice of life Nature's way of balancing the books on the excess of population Populations increase geometrically, but resources increase arithmetically
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geographic
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of or pertaining to geography.
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_____affects global climate change cyclicaly
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Orbital cycle
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Amber
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a hard yellowish to brownish translucent fossil resin
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meiosis
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cell division that produces sex cells
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hominids
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human beings and the humanlike creatures that preceded them
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punctuated equilibrium
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evolutionary model suggesting species often diverge in spurts of relatively rapid change, followed by long periods of little change
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Homologous Structures
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same structure, different function (Human arm & cat arm)
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Divergent evolution
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(adaptive radiation). Closely related species become differnet as move into new environments. (finches, tortoises)
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sexual reproduction
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creates individuals with new combinatins of alleles
includes crossing over, independent assortment of homologoues, and random joining of gametes
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Cenozoic Era
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Mammals evolved adaptations that allowed them to life in various environments
Land, water, and air
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Evolution is the only scientific explanation for ________.
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Adaptation
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Fahrenholz's rule
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closely related parasites have corresponding closely related hosts
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Realised niche
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What a group actually uses
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evolved
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developed and changed over a long period of time
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evolving
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to develop gradually by process of growth and change
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acquired characteristics
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Characteristics of an organism gained during its lifetime, not determined genetically and therefore not transmitted to the offspring
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Sexual Dimorphism
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differences in appearance between the sexes of a species
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fitness
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the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its specific environment. (Not the same as muscular)
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catalyst
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substance such as an enzyme that enables a chemical reaction to proceed at a faster rate than otherwise possible
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Hybrid inviability
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post: the death of interspecific embryos during development.
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Sexual selection
|
we all know what that is.
|
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James Hutton
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Geologist; earth is millions of years... not thousands. Gradualism. Believed earth changed slowly over time.
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phyletic gradualism
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evolution occurs by the gradual accumlation of small changes. individual speciation eventts or major changes in lineages occur over long periods of geologic time
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Ecological Concepts
Population
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Different groups making up the ecosystem consist of populations of plants and animals.
Population: a group of interbreeding organisms of the same kind occupying a particular place
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stabilizing selection
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individuals with with the average condition for a trait are most favored
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Gene Trees
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Diagram representing the history by which gene copies have been derived from ancestral gene copies in previous generations.
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Character Displacement
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two closely related organisms with overlapping ranges look very different in the overlapping areas because of competition but look almost identical in areas where they don't overlap
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Modern syntheses
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Connected units of evolution genes with the mechanism selection
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Cons of bipedalism
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slow runners
decrease ability to move in trees
gravity and blood pressure
joint strain
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geologic time scale
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scale used by paleontologists to represent evolutionary time
|
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trace fossils
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provide evidence of the activities of ancient organisms
|
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heritability
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NS condition; parents must be able to pass traits onto children
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Natural Selection
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The process by which individuals that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than other members of the same species.
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species
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group of organisms that can breed with one another in a wild, free-ranging condition to produce fertile offspring; it is also the second name in the binomial system of nomenclature; can have more than one morphotype within a species
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Geologic Time
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the billions of years of Earth's history
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Ordovician period
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(440 mya) advanced marine algae, early vertebrates
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Darwinian fitness
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Ability for indivials to PASS genes into the next generation.
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ALTRUISM
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Giving a benefit without any reward or where there may even be a cost
Behaviors include:
Grooming, cooperation, give warning signals
Explained in genes
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Dichotomous key
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step by step way to identify organisms using paired questions
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Biological Species concept (BSC)
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Groups are reproductively isolated species from other groups
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- no clear symmetry- attached to a surface- pores thru body- no mouth/anus
|
cnidaria
|
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African Replacement Hypothesis
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modern humans originated in Africa 170-200 thousand years ago--they spread through Eurasia and replaced other Homo species probably through competition rather than hybridization
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Cladogenesis phylogenetic system
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Evolutionary change by the branching off of new species from common ancestral types Shared derived characteristics, synomorphy, with monophylectic groups.
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What are examples of primate culture?
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Tool use (chimps)
ASL (chimps)
Patterns of social engagement
Washing food and swimming (macaques)
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cast
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A type of fossil that forms when a mold becomes filled in with minerals that then harden.
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Antibiotics
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drugs that kill or slow the growth of bacteria
|
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three postzygotic isolation mechanisms
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(1) hybrid viability, (2) hybrid infertility, (3) hybrid breakdown
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Natural Theology
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Idea of naming and cataloging all of God's creation
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Genetic drift
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Random changes in small gene pools DUE TO CHANGE, NOT natural selection.
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pair bonded species
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males and females roughly the same size, have similar secondary sex characteristics, male-male aggression is low, males do not indescriminantly mate, low variability among male reproductive success. females seek males with good parenting skills, sometimes cuckolding males.
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Sister Group
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2 clades or lineages sharing a common ancestor
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subfunctionalization
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parent gene had to have at least two functions, new genes subdivide the functions
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Terrtitorial Orangutans may attack offpring of Transient males as wouldn't have 'better' dominant genes. However,
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Increases genetic variability and female will have good transient offspring as the male did win in the game of reproduction to pass on his genes.
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tar pits
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formed when a dark sticky form of oil seeps up from underground causing animals to get stuck.
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Darwin's evidence in formulating theory of evolution by natural selection: resemblance among similar species
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suggests that species weren't just spontaneously created but that species seemed to give rise to new species
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Three Steps of Evolution
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1) certain biological traits can be inherited2) there is variability of these traits3) these traits can confer some sort of advantage4) traits change in frequency (a fit trait will become more prevalent in the population over time)
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Gene-for-Gene Specific Coevolution
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for each gene causing resistance in a host there is a corresponding gene for virulence in the parasite or pathogen
|
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what are the eight kingdoms of the eight-kingdom system?
|
Archaea, Bacteria, Chromista, Protista, Archaezoa, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia
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Mass extinction at end of Cretaceous
|
-Pangea breaks up
-climate and sea level change
-meteorite impact
|
|
theory of evolution by natural selection incorporates several concepts about the change WITHIN species which are
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(1) individual members of a species vary in characteristics, (2) variations are heritable, (3) populations have the potential to populate the entire earth but don't because the capacity of survival and reproduction is not fully realized, (4) different individuals of a population leave different numbers of descendants, (5) individual with the greatest proportionate contribution is the "fittest."
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Motoo Kumura and The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution
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N.S. requires phenotypic variation to act upon; but many genetic changes cause no phenotypic change; led to hypothesis that most of the evolution of DNA sequences occurs by genetic drift rather than N.S.
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Variation
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spontaneous generation
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abiogenesis.
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Principles of Geology
|
Lyell
|
|
Mammals arose during the____
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Eocene
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speciation
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formation of new species
|
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homo habilis
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used tools consistently
|
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within-sex competition
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males compete for mates
|
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Macroevolution
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Change above species level. (fish----amphibians; dinosaurs---birds).
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overproduction
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excessive production; production in excess of need or stipulated amount.
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fossils
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Remains of life-forms of the past.
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Behavioral Isolation
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sympatric speciation; mating depends on mating ritual
|
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Comparative Embryology
|
the study of developing organisms--compare embryos of different organisms and similarities show that they have common genes from a common ancestor (ex. gill slits in vertebrates)
|
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Essay on the Principle of Population
|
Malthus
|
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Anthropoidea
|
suborder that includes the higher primates; monkeys, apes and humans (anthropoids); includes New World and Old World monkeys, apes, and humans
|
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Cretaceous
|
144 millon years ago; flowering plants, mass extinctions.
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chemical evolution
|
study of how life began
|
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Mesozoic Era
|
The increasing dominance of dinosaurs
Appeared 225 million yrs ago
Marketed by the appearance of flowering plants
|
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Hominid
|
further term than Hominin, including chimps, etc.
|
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cladistics
|
Classification of organisms based on the branchings of descendant lineages from a common ancestor - preferred over linnean evo taxonomy as is explicit, reproducible and relatively objective
- Problems caused by diff evolutionary rates
|
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petrification
|
the process of turning some plant material into stone by infiltration with water carrying mineral particles without changing the original shape
|
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mold
|
a fossil formed when an organism buried in sediment dissolves, leaving a hollow area
|
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adaptive radiation
|
the development of many different forms from an originally homogeneous group of organisms as they fill different ecological niches
|
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Microevolution
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changes in the gene pool. Small changes over relatively short periods of time
|
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primates
|
Members of the order of mammals includes monkeys, apes, and humans
|
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Monera consist of
|
one-celled prokaryotes (bacteria and archea)
|
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phylogeny
|
The complete evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
|
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hyracotherium
|
earliest ancestor that the horse is known to have descended from; was small, had teeth for feeding on woody plants, and had four toes.
|
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Allometric growth
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Uneven growth, the proportioning that helps give a body its specific form
|
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frequency dependent selection
|
minority advantage
when the least common phenotypes have a selective advantage
|
|
GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATE
Geographic Races
|
Populations connected by intermediate forms or intergrades, so that it is virtually impossible to separate them
|
|
Charles Darwin
|
voyage 5 years. travels through galopagoas island on his ship HMS beagle arcapelgo studied various beak types of finches on different island
|
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Amphibians
|
- Axial undulation zig zag remains prevalent
- Many terrestrial and aquatic forms
- Multiple events of limb loss and extreme specialization of limbs in frogs.
|
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strata
|
Layers; here, the layers of rock and soil under the earth's surface.
|
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pentadactyl
|
having five digits or toes on each hand or foot
|
|
radioactive dating
|
a technique used to determine the actual age of a fossil on the basis of the amount of a radioactive element it contains
|
|
half-life
|
Period of time which splits dating in half by measuring carbon 14 levels
|
|
hybrid infertility
|
resulting zygote will develop into a viable organism but will not be able to reproduce
|
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Vestigial Structures
|
Evidence for evolution; remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species. EX: the human appendix, pelvis and limb bones in snake, eyes in blind cave fish, the human coccyx, goosebumps (vestigial behavior).
|
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niche
|
role of a species in its community, including an organism's adaptations, resources, and trophic interactions with other organisms
|
|
founder effect
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occurs when allele frequencies in a group of migrating individuals are, by chance, not the same as that of their population of origin
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MECHANISMS OF SPECIATION
Polypoidy
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Spontaneous generation of new species through alteration of chromosome numbers
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the ability of an organism to survive and repjroduce in its specific environment
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fitness
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Temporal Isolation
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Two or more species reproduce at different times
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humans have gills-->ears and throats
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what represents MOLECULAR homology?
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Human (homo) Characteristics
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larger brains, flatter face, smaller teeth, jaws, taller, less sexual dimorphism
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Binomeal nomenclature
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Names by Genus and species; shared primitive and derived features, looks at grades of evolution fossil order and modern synthesis.
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Climate change in Africa occured____
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between the Eocene and Miocene
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radio active dating
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scientists calculate the age of a sample based on the amount of remaining radio activity isotopes
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Gene Pools
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All of the alleles present in a species
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vestigial structures occur because
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(1) the structure conferred no adaptive advantage to the species in which it is functionless, and it may have had disadvantages, (2) evolution is a slow process, and useless structures do not disappear quickly
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cladogram
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a diagram that is based on patterns of shared, derived traits and that shows the evolutionary relationship b/w groups of organisms
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polyploidy
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the possesion of more than 2 set of chromosomes in diploid cells
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Index Fossils
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Used to compare the relative ages of fossils
To be used as an such, a species must be easily recognized and must have existed for a short period but have a wide geographic range
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Single-Gene Trait
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A trait controlled by a single gene that has two a
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Gene Fusion and Fission
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2 genes joined together (alcohol dehydrogenase gene in Drosophila) or a large gene split up
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Struggle for Existence—
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members of each species have to compete for food, shelter or other life necessities
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geological time scale
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the time of a physical formation of the earth.
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absolute dating
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more precise way to date a fossil by using radioactive isotopes
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Relative dating
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The age of a fossil is determined by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock
Allows paleontologists to estimate a fossil's age compared with that of other fossils
Does not provide information about its absolute age, or age in years
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ribozyme
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a segment of RNA that can act as a catalyst.
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characteristics of the genus Australopithecus
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members of genus were bipedal, had human-like hands and teeth, brains were much smaller than modern human brain, thought to have been an evolutionary dead end, dated to 3 mya
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What is gene flow?
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The incorporation of genes into a gene pool of one population from one or more other populations
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idea that was common to both Darwin and Lamarck
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evolutionary adaptation results from interactions between an organism and its environment
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How do bacteria develop antibiotic resistance?
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1. a resistant gene can be transferred to a bacterium and creates variation.2. natural selection3. reproduce, spread, and replace
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