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Adaptation
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Vestigial Organs
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relatedness
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r = E(1/2)^l
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Lamarcke
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French Natrolist-1700's Based Evolution on "Aquired Characteristics"
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Balancing Polymorphism: Negative Frequency Selection
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gradualism
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smooth, not sudden evolution
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Fungi
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• Multicellular body: mycelium• Composed of: tubular filaments = hyphae• Hypha: divided into cell-like units by septa• Hyphae may be specialized• Mycelium may be reorganized into reproductive fruiting body(mushroom)
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what is Ne?
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Effective population size
proportion of the population that actually reporduces, the number of mature reproductively active adults
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Allopatric Speciation
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-Geographically isolated-gene flow ceases between them-diverge genetically (env pressures&mutation)-Dispersal/Colonization: small # individuals disperse to a new placeVicariance: large population splits into 2 or more sub-pop
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Migration vs. Drift
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migration:
-inreases population variation
-decreases differences among population
drift:
-decreases population variation
-increases differences among population
SILVER EYES-wing length is different in different populations
-**allelelic diversity decreases in colonized areas
-bottleneck occurs at each colonization
BOTTLENECK confounding factors:
-#colonizers
-sex ratio
-distance of island
-population size
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Theroy
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A well-supported explanation of phenomena that have occured in the natrual world
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Universal Explanations
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-How humans came into existance
-Relationship of humans and other animals
-How humans are ultimate products of creation
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Fungus Foraging
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- always heterotrophs- seceret digestive enzymes --> then absorb nutrients throught SA- Huge SA to volume ratio - helps!
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lamarck
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first theory of evolution, before darwin. wrong abut the theory of "inner striving" but got the ball rolling on evolution and made a new classification system
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Charles Lyell
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How old the Earth is
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Homoplasy
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Similarities caused by Reversal and Convergence
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Malthus
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overpopulation would be halted by disease, war, and famine; led Darwin to believe overproduction occurred because not all would survive
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phylogeny of major primates
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lemuriformestarsiiformesnew world monkeysold world monkeysgibbonsorangutansgorillas chimpanzees humans
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There is considerable evidence that modern Homo sapiens evolved in the continent of...
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Africa
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Deme
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local group of an interbreeding population
geographic features can affect the size of the group
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disruptive selection
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Natural selection that favors individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range over intermediate phenotypes
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homologous structure
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similarities in body parts, suggesting inheritance
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Mutation
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Chance alteration of a gene that produces a new allele. Comes from germ cell and sometimes in meiosis.
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assortative mating
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individuals select partners that are like themselves
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Artificail Selection
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Humans decide which prganisms will survive and reproduce depending on their needs and or desires.Needs= No direct agricaltureDesires= Dog breeding
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natural selection again
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Natural SelectionIndividuals within a population are phenotypically variable- and those differences can influence how well they acquire resources, (food, shelter, mates, etc.) and therefore can affect their reproductive success.
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Adaption
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Process of becoming adapted to an environment.
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Natural Selection
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not like descent with modification; it's a process; reason that lineages exist
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Which of the five common ancestors, labeled V—Z, has been least successful in terms of the percent of its derived species that are extant?a. Vb. Wc. Xd. Ze. Y
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B
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Punctuated Equilibrium
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rapid evolutionary change in the phenotype of a lineage separated by long periods of little change
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Polyphyletic group
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Groups of species with different common ancestors.
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reproductive character displacement
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differences among similar species whose distributions overlap geographically are accentuated in regions where the species co-occur but are minimized or lost where the species' distributions do not develop
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Embryonic Development
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comparing embryos of different species to look for similarities
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Emigration
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Movement of individuals out of a population.
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Muller's Ratchet
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-overall number of deleterious alleles in a finite, asexualpopulation can only increase over time
-rate of reverse mutations is very low
-genetic load increases
Short-term advantages of sex:
-decrease deleterious mutations
-rapid environmental change
-recombination
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Retroviruses
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- HIV, AIDS-contains RNA, rather than DNA- copies its RNA into DNA- uses reverse transcriptase
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paratric
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pop.s that lie adjacent but never interbreed
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fitness
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the ability of a population to maintain or increase its numbers in succeeding generations
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Gene Pool
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All the genetic variants possessed by members of a population.
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population
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includes all the members of a species in a given area
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Evolutionary Species Concept
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"A lineage evolving separately from others with its own unitary evolutionary role and tendencies."
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Characteristics of Mutations
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mistakes in genes and chromosomes; random; ultimate source of variation in every population
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super gene
ex
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several alleles @ several loci acting as a single gene with many phenotypic effects
ex. mimics/models
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Peripatric Allopatric Speciation
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a colony disperses from a widespreadpopulation to a new area and evolvesreproductive isolation (genetic drift/founder effect)
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Incumbent replacement
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Extinction of the incumbent taxon may then have vacated ecological "niche space" permitting the 2nd taxon to radiate
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Gene Flow
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The movement of alleles from one population to another owing to the migration of individual organismsEffects:1) advantageous alleles spread throughout a species2) helps maintain all of the organisms over a large area as one species
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The theory that proposes that most evolutionary change at the molecular level is driven by random drift rather than natural selection resulting in inconsequential changes in the DNA is called...
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Neutral Theory
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best example of structure present in all embryos?
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pharyngeal arches
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Geographical Isolation
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Separated by barriers such as rivers, mountains, desert, etc.
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small or incomplete organs that have no apparent function
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vestigial organs
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galapagos islands
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off the coast of south america - species of plants and animals similar to mainland
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Describe allopatric speciation.
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One species is separated by a geographic barrier, and through time, the subpopulations become two species
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Modes of selection
(2) Stabilizing selection
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Stabilizing selection selects against phenotypes that deviate in either direction from the optimal value for a character.
- The mean value of the trait is maintained
- Decreases variation (if heritable)
- predominant selective force for many traits
- often involves 2 opposing directional selection forces
Examples:
- human birth weight (percent mortality goes up for very heavy or very light infants)
- gecko body size (gain territory/mates vs. exposure to owls)
- gall size in gall flies (wasps prey on smaller galls, birds prey on larger galls; selection favors middle ground)
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Hutton & Lyell: Who & What?
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-Scientists that interested/influenced Darwin-HUTTON: Earth & life on it was much different millions of yrs ago. -Geological forces shaped the Earth; Earth is changed by gradual processes.LYELL: -Wrote "The Principles of Geology", which Darwin read prior to HMS Bealge venture-Scientists have an obligation to explain events based on scientific observations and testable hypotheses.-Earth's processes shaped the Earth
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Smith's contributions to evolutionary thinking
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Capitalism and competition: exploit and conquer
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limits of natural selection (4)
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1)historical constraints: new species originate from existing species
2)adaptations are compromises: single structure often has multiple functions
3)evolution is not only the result of adaptation: some of it is due to chance (genetic drift, mutation)
4)acts on existing variation: does not create new alleles (unless mutation)
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What is fitness?
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The ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its specific environment
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Conservation of Allele Frequencies
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Under conditions of random mating (panmixia) where all genotypes are equally viable, the allele frequencies depend on allele frequencies of previous generations (NOT Genotype frequencies)
Different genotypes depend only on allele frequencies
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the form of selection acting on a quantitative trait in which individuals with intermediate values have the highest fitness is called
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Stabilizing selection
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A. Living Species [2]
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similar to species on adjacent mainland [think of Galgapagos Islands and turtles and birds]
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Mutagenic UV Radiation
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- protective pigments ( in animals and humans: melanin)- protective structures
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Archbishop James Ussher
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calculated Earth to be more more than 6000 years old using geneologies in the Bible
scholarly pursuit to find the age of the world
Irish Protestant Church
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why doesn’t the hardy-weinburg equillbrium work
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Natural selection (the best life on..),, Mutation , Assortive Mating, Genetic Drift(change in gene pool due to chance), Gene Flow (migration)
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Continent Island Model of Migration
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organisms immigrate from the mainland to an island, change the allele frequency on the island
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What is adaptive radiation?
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one species enters a relatively new territory, then a quick explosion of new species because there is no competition
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example of a quantitative trait
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height or IQ scores in humans
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How to approach macroevolution
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Since there is only a single history of life the approach is to 1) look for repeating patterns within that history2) Try to identify causal factors that are extensions of known microevolutionary and ecological processes.On this scale units are species and the causal factors may relate to plate tectonics and other abiotic factors
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Charles Darwin: What did he do?
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-Traveled overseas; most known is journey to Galapagos Islands
-studied a variety of galapagos turtles, finches, and iguanas. He also studied types of plants.
-Travels framed his theory of natural selection
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What were the main steps of hypothetico-deductive method?
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1) induction: phenomenon observed, explanation proposed2) Hypothesis: Explanations further proposed and constructed in a testable manner3) Deduction: data is proposed so that the hypothesis can either be refuted or not refuted.
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Give an example of convergent evolution.
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An example of convergent evolution is:birds and bats both having wingscephalapods and vertebrate eyes
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LIfe Cycle of Land Plants : Alternation of generations
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Gametophytes (N) -> fertilization -> Sporophyte (2N)-> Reduction Division (Meiosis) -> Gametophytes
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How does Hbar change with N?
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Larger populations (N) take less time for Hbar to go to zero
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describe the similarities between tetrapod forelimbs in vertabrates?
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humerus on topradius bone on inside of forearm, ulna on outside. Carpals small at wrist. Metacarpals as fingers.
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Can election by bees influence the evolution of floral traits?
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skypilot (alpine flower... diameter is 12% larger at high elevations)
-bumblebee is sole pollinator at high elevations
How can it be bigger at high elevations?
Though increased elevation, bumblebees are only pollinators, while other pollinators are not present.
Measured flowers and seed set
Collected seed, planted offspring in cage
P=14.2mm (flower size)
Selection differential (5%).. 5% larger than average
-difference b/w bee pollinated and non-bee pollinated flowers
R=0.01-0.05, depending on h2 (low 0.2 or high 1)
-small or large response to selection
-expect offspring with bigger flowers
-this R value seems small, but looking only at 1 generation!
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what is the sum of squares?
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take each value, subtract it from the mean, and square it. Then add all these up
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What the hell did Dobzhansky do?
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worked with fruit flies; said that the basis of evolution is the changing of allele frequencies and mutations that arise on a molecular level.
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Explain how and why linked loci vary among populations of the Batesian mimc Papilio mimnon. In your answer explain the term "super gene."
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In the case of papilio memnon, linkage-disequilibrium results from NS on allelic combos.
Papilio memnon is a SE Asian butterfly that has geogrphic phenotypic variation. It is a non-toxic (Batesian) mimic of other toxic butterflies.
Wing shape, color and pattern are determined by several linked loci, most of which have multiple alleles. The different discrete morphs have different genotypes. In a given area these big sets of linked loci are selected on and act like a "supergene" allowing the mimic to adapt to match the local model.
Intermediates are not seen b/c they are recognized by predators.
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Describe the case of the Ozark Lizard....what is this an example of?
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First of all this will be an example range retraction causing RGD
these lizards used to be widespread through desert habitats.
then there was a climate change from aried to mesic
now the "relict" popn live in fragmented desert and these popn show RGD of their neutral alleles
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What did Darwin do 75% of the time he was abroad?
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He spent it on land! He explored for months at at time. He never overcame his sea sickness so he avoided being on the ship too long.
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