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types of presentation strategies
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performing speeches, plays, videos; making a speech, participating in debate; creating booklets, brochures, family scrapbooks, or personal web pages; publishing a school newspaper, magazine, or portfolio; submitting work for publication beyond classroom for a literary magazine, local newspaper, professional publication for writers
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drafting
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gathering ideas onto paper in sentences and paragraphs
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drafting
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in this stage, students begin writing, connecting, and developing ideas
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internet
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online: dictionaries, encyclopedias, writers' reference handbooks, books of lists, almanacs, thesauruses, books of quotations, and so on; various search engines and portals to gather ideas and information
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publishing
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the "going public" stage of writing
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quotations
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the exact words of a source set off in quotation marks
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creative
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speech or written form in which one expresses thoughts and feelings with imagination and creativity
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subject
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topic that you are discussing
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paraphrase
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a detailed statement of someone else's statement expressed in your own words and your own sentence structure
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introductory paragraph
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leads into the topic of the essay, trying to capture the reader's interest
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types of source material
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reference works, internet, student-created sources, other
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guidelines for evaluating evidence
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is it sufficient? is it representative? is it relevant? is it accurate? are claims qualified?
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assertion
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a sentence stating your topic and the point you want to make about it
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praise
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use of positive messages to recognize or influence others
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common transitional expressions and the relationships they signal
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addition (also, in addition, too, moveover); example (for example, for instance, on the otherhand, nevertheless); contrast (but, yet, however, on the other hand); comparison (similarly, likewise, in the same way); concession (of course, to be sure, certainly, granted); result (therefore, thus, accordingly); summary (hence, in short, in brief, in conclusion, finally); time sequence (first, second, third, before, soon, later, subsequently, currently); place (in the front, in the foreground, in the back, at the side, adjacent, nearby)
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chronological order
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the writer shows order of time or the steps in a process
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concluding paragraphs
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ends the essay smoothly, not abruptly, flowing logically from the rest of the essay
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style
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the way the an author uses words, phrases, and sentences to formulate ideas
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argument
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speech or written form that debates or argues a topic in a logical way
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summary
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a condensed statement of main points of someone else's passage expressed in your own words and sentence structure
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steps of revision
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shifting mentally from judgment; read your draft to critically evaluate it; decide whether to rewrite or revise current draft; be systematic
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plagerizing
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is to present another person's words or ideas as if they were your own
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tone
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part of your writing that is established by what you say and how you say it
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reference works
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dictionaries, encyclopedias, writers' reference handbooks, books of lists, almanacs, thesauruses, books of quotations, and so on
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APA
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Salinger, J. D. (1945) 'The Catcher in the Rye.' New York: Little, Brown and Company.
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climax
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the details are stated first, followed by a topic sentence
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techniques for coherence
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use transitional expressions, use pronouns effective, uses deliberate repetition effectively, use parallel structures effectively
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stages of the writing process
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prewriting (also called planning or rehearsal), shapping, drafting, revising, editing, proofreading and publishing
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student-created sources
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a student's personal dictionary of words to know or spell, note cards, graphic organizers, oral histories, and journals
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problem and solution
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informs the reader of the problem and suggests action to remedy problem (similar to a persuasive argument paper)
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expository
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speech or written form in which one explains or describes
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chronological order
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a following of one thing after another (key words: after, next, afterward, during, preceding, finally, immediately, first, later, now)
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coherence
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when the essay supplies guideposts that communicate the relations among ideas
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development
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arrange a paragraph, and specific, concrete support for the main idea of the paragraph
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holistic scoring
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impressionistic; method based on theory that a whole piece of writing is greater than the sum of its parts; essays are read for a total impression they create, rather than individual aspects; grammar, spelling, and organization should not be considered as separate entities
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shaping
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calls for you to consider ways to organize your material
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types of discourse
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creative, expository, persuasive, argumentative
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scholarly writing
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essays, research papers, biographies--these types of writing are most prevalent in middle or secondary level classrooms
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audience
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the particular group of readers or viewers that the writer is addressing
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RENNS
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a memory device to check for specific, concrete details: reason, examples, names, numbers, senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch)
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Toulman's model of arguement
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the claim, the support, the warrant
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scoring rubics
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descriptive scoring schemes that are developed by teachers and other evaluators to guide analysis of the products or process of a a students efforts; scoring requires certain criteria to be met; example: (3) meets expectation (2) adequate (1) needs improvement (0) inadequate
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major activities of revision
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add (insert needed words, sentences, paragraphs), cut (get rid of whatever goes off topic), replace (as needed, substitute words, sentences, paragraphs), move material around (changing sequence of paragraphs)
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point of view
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the perspective from which a piece is written; first person, third person, omniscient, limited omniscient
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counterpoints
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use of contrasting ideas to communicate a message
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cause and effect
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the writer shows the relationship between events and their results
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sarcasm
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use of positive feedback or cutting wit to mock someone
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typical elements in informative essay
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introductory paragraph, thesis statement, background information, points of discussion, concluding paragraph
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peer review
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acting a referee; evaluating a colleague's work professionally
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basic requirements for a thesis statement
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subject, purpose, focus, specific language, briefly state subdivisions
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direct quotation
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repeats another's words exactly and encloses them in quotation marks
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subject writing
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middle and secondary level students learn how to write interviews, accounts, profiles, or descriptions to capture the meaning of the subject being written about
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journalistic questions
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who? what? when? where? why? how?
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audience characteristics
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age, gender, ethic backgrounds, political philosophies, religious beliefs, roles (student, parent, voter, wage earner, property owner, veteran), interests hobbies, level of education, amount of general or specialized knowledge about the topic, preconceptions brought to the material
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self-assessment
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can be used in a group work to assist students in raising their awareness about the quality of their contributions to the group; part of any writing assignment to summarize strengths and weaknesses they see in their writing
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rhetorical features
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style, tone, point of view, sarcasm, counterpoints, praise
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unity
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achieved when all parts of the essay relate to the thesis statement and to each other
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ways to organize a passage
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chronological order, classification, illustration, climax, location, comparison, cause and effect
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focus
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your assertion that conveys your point of view
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points of discussion
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supports the essay's thesis, each consisting of a general statement backed by specific details
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thesis statement
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states the central message of the essay, accurately reflecting the essay's content
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ways to avoid generalizations
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be specific, use facts/data/statistics, use/attribute quotes; quantify don't qualify; use of "it seems," try not to overstate situation, base writing on authority, break down the topic
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other sources
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film, art, media, and so on
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persuasive / argumentative writing
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students learn rhetorical strategies to persuade others, such as by writing editorials, arguments, commentaries, and advertisements
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shaping
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often called composing; putting together the ideas to create a composition
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writing activities
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personal writing, workplace writing, subject writing, creative writing, persuasive writing, and scholarly writing
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revising
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this is the stage of writing that involves rewriting or "re-seeing;" emphasis is place on examining sentence structure, word choice, voice, and organization of the piece
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purpose
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either to give your reader information or to persuade your readers to agree with you
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background information
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gives basic material, providing a context for the points being made in an essay
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creative writing
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provides students with the opportunity to play with language, to express emotions, to articulate stories, or to develop a drama for others to enjoy
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workplace writing
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middle and secondary level students learn how to prepare resumes, cover letters, job applications, and business letters
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topic sentence
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the first sentence of the paragraph; it gives the reader an idea of what the paragraph is going to be about
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comparison
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the writer demonstrates similarities and differences between two or more subjects
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process writing
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learning how to write by writing; is an approach which encourages students to communicate their own written messages while simultaneously developing their literacy skills in speaking and reading rather than delaying involvement in the writing process, as advocated in the past, until students have perfected their abilities in handwriting, reading, phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation
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formal outline guidelines
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number, letters, indentations signaling groups and levels of importance; each level has more than one entry; all subdivisions are at the same level of generality; headings don't overlap; only first word (and proper nouns) of each entry capitalize; introductory and concluding paragraphs omitted, but thesis is state about the outline itself
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source
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a book, article, videotape, or any other form of communication
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extended metaphor
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is a metaphor (a comparison of two unlike things) used throughout a work or over a series of lines in prose or poetry
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analogies
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are comparison of two pairs that have the same relationship
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portfolios
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examples of student's essays, created to organize and explain their selections for end-of-term writing; reveals how much students learn from such reflection; careful attention to students reflections invites instructors to change their approach so that it encourages the process of learning that students describe
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evaluating
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in this stage, the writer looks back at his/her work and self-evaluates, and the audience evaluates the effectiveness of the writing
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purposes of writing
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to express yourself, to inform a reader, to persuade a reader, to create a literary work
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evidence
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facts, data, and opinions of others used to support assertions and conclusions
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editing
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this stage involves checking for style and conventions--spelling, grammar, usage, and punctuation
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free writing
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writing nonstop about anything
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personal writing
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students can express their innermost thoughts, feelings, and responses through a variety of personal writing, including journal writing, diaries, logs, personal narratives, and personal essays
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tone
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the overall feeling created in a piece of writing
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spatial sequence
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spatial, geometrical, or geographical arrangement of ideas according to their position in space (examples: left/right, top/bottom, circular, adjacent)
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proofreading
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calls for you to read your final copy for typing errors or handwriting legibility
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persuasive
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speech or written form in which one sets forth to convince
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general reading public
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composed of educated, experienced readers, people who read newspapers, magazines, and books
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prewriting
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this stage of the writing process involve gathering and selecting ideas; teachers can help students in several ways: creating lists, researching, brainstorming,reading to discover more about the author's style, talking, collecting memorabilia or clips from other texts, and free-writing
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rhetorical strategies
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analogies, extended metaphor, appeal to authority, appeal to emotion
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location
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the writer describes a person, place, or thing and organizes it in the description in a logical manner
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cause and effect
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relationship occur whenever one event makes other events happen (key words: consequently, as a result of, accordingly,in order to, if/then)
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appeal to authority
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type of argument in logic in which an expert or knowledgeable other is cited for the purpose of strengthening the argument
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MLA
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Salinger, J.D. 'The Catcher in the Rye.' New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 1945.
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specific language
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vague words are avoided
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focused free writing
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writing nonstop by starting with a set topic
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indirect quotations
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reports another's words without quotation marks except around words repeated exactly from the source
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classification
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the writer explains the relationship between terms and concepts
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compare and contrast
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used to show similarities and differences (key words: although, but, still, yet, compared with, as opposed to, different from, either/or, neither/nor, in common, similarly
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revising
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taking a draft from its preliminary to its final version by evaluating, adding, cutting, moving material, editing, and proofreading
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appeal to emotion
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type of argument in which the author appeals to the readers emotions (fear, security, pity, flattery) to prove the argument
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mapping
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also called clustering and webbing; more visual and less linear
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brainstorming
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listing all the ideas that come to mind associated with the topic
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graphic organizer
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(some of which are also called concept maps, entity relationship charts, and mind maps) are a pictorial way of constructing knowledge and organizing information; they help the student convert and compress a lot of seemingly disjointed information into a structured, simple-to-read, graphic display; the resulting visual display conveys complex information in a simple-to-understand manner
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guidelines for reasoning effectively in written arguement
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be logical, enlist the emotions of the reader, establish credibility
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generalizations
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can overstate or understate a fact; can cause skepticism; undermine the writer's authority; (key words: all, everyone, always, many, never, nobody); creates inaccuracies; can produce false statements
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elements in an argument
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introductory paragraph, thesis statement, background information, reasons or evidence, anticipation of like objections and responses to them, concluding paragraph
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illustration
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the topic sentence is stated and then followed by the details
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