| Terms |
Definitions |
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Heat sensors in rattlesnakes and vipers
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*Fig 14.7 - deer and plant dispersal
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Adaptations for prey capture
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Botfly
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*Equilibrium and nonequilibrium theory (related to species coexistence in a community)
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What role (list 4) do parasites play in an ecosystem
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*Fig. 12.14 Plant defense and herbivore counterdefense
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*Leaf cutter (fungus growing ants) mound, p. 302
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*Fig 13.1 Wood Cricket and text
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*Fig 12.9 Trade-off in snail defenses against crab predation
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*Figure 11.2 competition decreases growth in carnivorous plants
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*Fig. 18.7 Resource partitioning and associated text
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The Yucca Plant and the Yucca Moth
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*Induced defense
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Adaptations in dippers - list 5
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"Scuba mask" eyes, down feathers, strong wings,
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Bladderworm
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Fig 6.8 Harmful effects of genetic drift (Greater Prairie Chicken)
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Genetic drift can increase the frequency of a harmful allele. Changed 6 alleles and egg hatching rates were greatly reduced
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*What determines the number of trophic levels?
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*Fig. 20.13 Disturbance influences the number of trophic levels in an ecosystem
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*Fig 13.9 Life cycle of the malaria parasite, plasmodium - overview
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*Fig 14.4 Two major types of Mycorrhizae
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The biological species concept
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z
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*Fig. 12.15 A beetle (leaf-feeding) controls a noxious (invasive) rangeland weed
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Ectoparasitism
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*Population cycles
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*Fig. 11.3 Space can be a limiting resource
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Population
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A group of individuals of a single species that live in a particular area and interact with each other
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*Parasitoids
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Trophic cascade
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Frugivores
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*Fig 13.14 - Parasites can reduce host reproduction in beetles
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Cassowaries as a keystone species
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Avian brood parasitism
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Ecology
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z
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*Why do some plants eat animals? How might this relate to competition?
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*Fig. 14.17 Effects of a mutualism with ants on Swollen (Bullhorn) Acacia
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*Effects of parasite defense on mate choice - e.g. stickleback fish or cichlid fish
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*Fig 13.10 Coevolution of the European rabbit and the myxoma virus and text
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Coevolution
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Proglottids
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*Fig 1.3 What type of life cycle is represented here - direct or indirect?
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*Fig 14.19 Mycorrhizal fungi affect ecosystem properties
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*Enslaver parasite
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Reproductive isolating mechanisms
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Pre-mating mechanisms
-Pre-encounter mechanisms (2)
-Post-encounter mechanisms (2)
Post-mating mechanisms (3)
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*Competition can determine the distribution of species (see fig. 11.8 - squeezed out by competition and associated text - distribution of barnacles)
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Fig 6.3 Descent with modification
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Disappearance of pelvic bone in stickleback fishes
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Cache, cache-finding abilities
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Endoparasitism
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*Fig. 12.8 Adaptations to escape being eaten and associated text
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Bats as fruits dispensers
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Reintroduction of the lynx into Colorado
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Ascaris Life cycle (overview)
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The role of prisons in transmission of infectious diseases
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*Transferrins - biochemical defenses
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Cannibalism (intraspecific predation)
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Strategies for facilitating seed dispersal (list 5)
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Adaptation
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A feature of an organism that improves its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment
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*G. F. Gause
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Predator avoidance adaptations
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Flash coloration
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Ecosystem
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z
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*There are costs to both host defenses and parasite counterdefenses - See fig. 13.13 (virulent rust pathogens reproduce poorly) and text
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Direct life cycle (direct transmission) - 2 examples
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Trophy hunting
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Hunting for trophies
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Pre-encounter mechanisms (2)
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z
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*Parasitoids
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Keystone species
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Cowbirds on the move - Shiny Cowbird and Yellow-shouldered Blackbirds
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MacArthur's Warblers
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*Most herbivores have relatively narrow diets (See Fig. 12.7)
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Abiotic
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z
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Interference Competition
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Leaf cutter ants and bacteria
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Fig 6.2 Trophy hunting decreases ram body and horn size
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Smaller body size and smaller horns result from trophy hunting
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*List 3 reasons why scientists should be worried about decline in amphibian species
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Bull-horn acacia
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Nutrient cycling - Salmon, bear, riparian vegetation in the Pacific NW
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*Fig 14.15 - A penalty for cheating: Yucca plants se...
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*Fig 13.3 - Please go over the human body as a habitat (overview)
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*Mutualism
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*Predator
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*Fig. 12.24 Both predators and food influence hare density and text
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*Fig. 8.21 The effects of otters on urchins and kelps
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Wolves in the West
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*Microparasites
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Theoretical Resource Gradient used by 3 species
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*Fig. 11.17 Character Displacement and associated text
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Fig 6.11 Rapid Adaptive Evolution Soapberry Bugs
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Beak length decreased
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Genetic drift (fig 6.7)
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When chance events determine which alleles are passed from one generation to the next
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Niche, Fundamental Niche, Realized Niche
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Biosphere
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z
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Current status of tuberculosis
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*Interference competition
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Consumption or Resource competition
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Six key concepts - p 130
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1. Evolution can be viewed as genetic change over time or as a process of descent with modification
2. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can cause allele frequencies in a population to change over time
3. Natural selection is the only evolutionary mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution
4. Long-term patterns of evolution are shaped by large-scale processes such as speciation, mass extinction, and adaptive radiation
5. Ecological interactions and evolution exert a profound influence on one another
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Frog voccalization - case study
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z
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*Fig 14.3 Mycorrhizal association and text
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*Coevolution
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Adaptive Radiation
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An event in which a group of organisms gives rise to many new species that expand into new habitats or new ecological roles in a relatively short time
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Brown-headed cowbirds along the Colorado front range
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Natural selection and pocket mice (Fig 6.4)
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In each population, natural selection has favored individuals whose coat colors match their surroundings, making them less visible to predators
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Interspecific vs. Intraspecific competition
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*Fig 14.4 Two major types of Mycorrhizae
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*Trophic cascade
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*Counterdefenses against encapsulation
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*Fig. 12.16 Lizard predators can drive their spider prey to extinction (plus text)
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*Fig. 12.6 The nitrogen content of plant varies considerably & associated text
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Mutualism
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*Fig 14.1 Leaf cutter or fungus growing ants and text
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Producer
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An organism that uses energy from an external source, such as the sun, to produce its own food without having to eat other organisms or their remains
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The "Mafia" Hypothesis
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*Fig. 8.20 Predicted distributions of chameleons (niche model) and associated text
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Social parasitism
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Table 1.1
Some ecological maxims
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1. you can never do just one thing
2. Everything goes somewhere
3. No population can increase in size forever
4. There is no free lunch
5. Evolution matters
6. Time matters
7. Life would be impossible without species interactions
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Predation
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*Fig. 12.13 Nonvenomous snake and its lethal prey (newt) plus text
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All organisms face a number of constraints on their evolution. These include: (list 4)
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(??)
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Nutrient Cycle
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The cyclic movement of a nutrient between organisms and the physical environment
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*How can we predict the current or future distributions of species?
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Home range size in predators and herbivores
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Migration of Rufous Hummingbirds
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*Allelopathy
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Mutualism
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Commensalism
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Competitive Exclusion Principle (the Gause Principle)
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Character Displacement in Beak size - Darwin's Finches
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*Nectaries
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*Fig 14.12 - a seeing eye fish
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*Commensalism
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*Sit-and-wait predators vs. mobile predators
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The beak of the finch - Grant study
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z
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*Ectomycorrhizae
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*Fugitive Species
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Bat-pollinated flowers - list 4 traits
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*Fig. 11.18 Competition shapes beak size and associated text
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*Fig. 8.22 Orca predation on otters may have lead to kelp decline
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Pre-mating Mechanisms (2)
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z
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*Beltian bodies
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Pork tapeworm (overview)
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Community
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An association of interacting populations of different species that live in the same area
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*Gongylidia
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What determines the distribution and abundance of a species?
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Review diagram
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Character displacement
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z
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Batesian mimicry
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*Fig. 20.11 A terrestrial trophic cascade plus associated text
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*Fig. 12.11 Herbivore damage plants lacking an induced-defense gene
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Adaptations
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z
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Cryptic coloration
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Obligate brood parasitism
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*Fig. 10.8 Lemming population cycle and text
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Predation
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Fig 6.22 Longevity and Breeding Value in Bighorn Sheep
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Trophy hunting: smaller-horned rams survive and reproduce
No trophy hunting: larger-horned rams survive and reproduce
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The case of the upside down Robin
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Wolves in Colorado
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The Village Weaver, the Didrik Cuckoo, and the Shiny Cowbird
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Floral nectaries
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*Nurse plants
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Scientific method
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Four steps: Question, Hypothesis, Experiments, Conclusion/New questions
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Cuckoo Catfish
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Fig 1.12
Ecological experiments
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Experiments in ecology range from laboratory experiments (A) to small-scale field experiments conductted in natural or artificial environments (B) to large-scale experiments that alter major components of an ecosystem
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*In class, we spoke about how parasites (meningeal worm) can alter the outcome of species interaction.
For another example from text - Fig. 13.17 Parasites can alter competition outcome in flour beetles
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Post-mating mechanisms (3)
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z
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*Ectomycorrhizae
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Parasitism
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Endoparasites
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Ingestion and seed dispersal
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When ecologists perform controlled experiments, they often .. the following three additional steps to reduce the chance that variables not under the control of the experimenter will unduly influence the results of an experiment. These are:
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Replicate, random, statistical analysis
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*How would you explain the deformed leopard frogs shown in Fig 1.1?
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Inadvertent evolution
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(??)
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*Fig. 12.3 Three ways to eat other organisms
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*Fig. 20.12 Effects of a trophic cascade on production in a tropical rainforest plus text
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*Secondary compounds
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*Not only can competition occur among closely related species, such as MacArthur's warblers discussed in class, but also it can occur among more distantly related species. See Fig. 11.7 Ants and rodents compete for seeds (and associated text)
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*Parasite
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*Niche (ecological niche)
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Fig. 6.13 Trade-offs between Reproduction and Survival in Red Deer
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Female red deer that reproduced had a lower chance of surviving to the next year than did females that did not reproduce
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*Fig 11.14 Herbivores can alter the outcome of competition
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Competition
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Seed dispersal model, seed fall (rain), and seedling survi
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*Fig 12.4 Are parastoids predators or parasites?
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*Fig. 12.5 A predator that switches to the most abundant prey - guppy & text
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Gause's Predator-Prey Experiments with Paramecium and Didinium
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The phylogenetic species concept
|
z
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Adaptive radiation in Galapagos finches
|
z
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*Fig 14.14 and text - Yuccas and Yucca Moth
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*Fig 14.16 - Ant-plant mutualism (bullhorn acacia)
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*Fig. 12.2 Hare population cycles and reproductive rates
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Starfish as a keystone predator
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*Habitat mutualism
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*Pathogen
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Parasitism - its significance from an ecological context
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Adaptations for brood parasitism (list 5)
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Mouthbrooding cichlids and mouthbrooding behavior
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*Food web
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*Fig. 11.10 Competition in Paramecium (and associated text)
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*Fig. 12.19 A snail herbivore can alter aquatic communities plus text
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*Fig. 11.11 Resource partitioning in lizards
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Botfly life cycle, using cattle as host
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Fig 6.6 Three types of natural selection: directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection & text
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Directional selection: favors individuals of one phenotypic extreme
Stabilizing selection: favors individuals with an intermediate phenotype
Disruptive selection: favors individuals at both extremes
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*Arbuscular mycorrhizae
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*Fig. 8.2 Do sea urchins limit the distribution of kelp forests?
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Mechanisms of seed dispersal
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*Go over Fig 1.5 Do Ribeiroia (the parasite) and pesticides interacts in nature?
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*Go over Fig 1.6 Pesticides may weaken tadpole immune systems
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*Fig. 20.16 An intertidal food web
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Facultative obligatory (non-symbiotic mutualism)
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis
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Sentry ants
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*How can you account for the rapid spread of West Nile Fever?
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Coral polyps
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*Arbuscular mycorrhizae
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Natural Selection and Adaptive Evolution
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Natural selection is the only evolutionary mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution
Adaptive evolution: a process of change in which traits that confer advantages tend to increase in frequency over time
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*Resource partitioning
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Reef-building corals
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*Endoparasite - example - see Fig 13.6
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*Resource partitioning
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Biosphere
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All living organisms on Earth plus the environment in which they live
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Fig 1.7
How would you explain the rapid spread of West Nile Virus?
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Humans have spread it (pesticides, etc)
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Peppered moth
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*Pathogens
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...
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*Fig 14.18 Ecological effects of the cleaner fish and text
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*Parasites can change communities - Fig. 13.18 trematode (flatworm) parasite, amphipods, and mudflats
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*Fig 1.2 What has caused the global decline of amphibian populations?
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*Intraspecific competition
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...
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*Ectoparasite - example - see Fig 13.5
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...
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Gene flow
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When alleles are transferred from one population to another via the movement of individuals or gametes
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Allopatric speciation
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Geographical separation results in speciation
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*Compensation
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Canada Lynx and the Snowshoe Hare
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Community
|
z
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Resistant strains of tuberculosis
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*Fig. 11.9 - Natural Experiment on competition between chipmunks (and associated text)
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Extrafloral nectaries
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*Fig. 11.15 Population decline in an inferior species, a fugitive algal species. Plus text.
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Zooanthellae or zooxanthellae - significance
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Obligatory mutualism (symbiotic mutualism)
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Industrial melanism
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*Parasites
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Aposematic (warning) coloration
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Transmission of Tuberculosis
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Yellowstone wolves, keystone predator, cascade effect
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Adatations in woodpeckers - list 5
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Hyoid apparatus, long tongue, zygo... toes, stiff tail, chiseled tongue
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Ecotourism and wildlife diseases
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Ecosystems
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A community of organisms plus the physical environment in which they live
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Ecological trade-offs
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Organisms face trade-offs in which the ability to perform one function can cause a reduction in the ability to perform another ("there is no free lunch")
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Speciation (fig 6.14)
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The process by which one species splits into two or more species (ex: physical barrier)
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*Encapsulation
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*Fig 14.6 Fig flowers, wasps, and text
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*Fig. 11.19 An experimental test of character displacement in sticklebacks
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*Fig 14.2 Fungus garden of a leaf-cutter ant
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*Fig. 12.18 The geographic spread of an aquatic herbivore (Golden Snail) plus text
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*Service mutualism
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Elevational distribution of chipmunks
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How did brood parasitism evolve?
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Competitive Exclusion in a laboratory experiment
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Mutation
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Change in the DNA of a gene that can result from copying errors during cell division, mechanical damage when molecules and cell structures collide with DNA, exposure to certain chemicals (mutagens), or exposure to high-energy forms of radiation such as ultraviolet light and X rays
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*Interspecific competition
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...
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*Fig. 18.8 Resource partitioning by warblers
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*Fig. 20.10 An aquatic trophic cascade plus text
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Evolution
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Change over time in the frequencies (proportions) of different alleles in a population
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Stowaways on the hummingbird express
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Indirect life cycle - 2 examples
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Four key processes that influence evolution include:
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Mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow
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Fungus gardens
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Species
|
z
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Ghost of Competition Past
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*Go over Fig 1.4 Parasites can cause amphibian deformities and associated text
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the banded mongoose
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Net Primary Productivit (NPP)
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The amount of energy (per unit of time) that producers fix by photosynthesis or other means, minus the amount used in cellular respiration
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*Immune systems and parasites
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*Herbivore
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*Go over Fig 1.15 and text - complex causation of amphibian deformities
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*Ribeiroia parasites
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Natural Selection
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An evolutionary process in which individuals that possess particular characteristics survive or reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals because of those characteristics
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Sharp-shinned Hawk case study
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...
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Adaptations against brood parasitism (list 5)
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...
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Meningeal worm
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...
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Fig 1.11
How ecosystems work
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Incoming solar radiation -> Energy is lost as metabolic heat -> Energy is transferred to consumers -> Energy is lost as metabolic heat OR decomposers break down the bodies of dead organisms, thereby returning nutrients to the physical environment
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Neutralism
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...
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Bird-pollinated flowers - list 4 traits
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...
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Scolex
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White-tailed Deer, Meningeal worms, and competitive advantage
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Fig 1.10
(Natural Selection in Action - bacteria and antibiotic)
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The bacteria that get through antibiotics continue on and begin to take over
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Predator size and home range
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What might happen (list 4) to the tuberculosis bacillus in the human body?
|
...
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Clown fish and anemones
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Fig 1.8
Levels of Biological Organization
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Molecules, cells, tissues, organs, systems
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Pseudomyrmex ants - ants living inside the acacia
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...
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*Fig 13.4 - Many species are host to more than one parasite species
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...
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Convergent evolution
|
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*Competitive Exclusion Principle
|
...
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Testing for Interspecific Competition
|
...
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Pleistocene Glaciations and speciation in N.A. wood warblers
|
z
|
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Table 1.2
|
Adaptation, natural selection, consumer, producer, net primary productivity (NPP), nutrient cycle
|
|
*Robert Paine's study on the sea star (starfish) and the intertidal food web
|
...
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Predator satiation
|
...
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Populations evolve, individuals do not
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Evolution is not within a lifetime
|
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*Fig. 12.12 How snakes swallow prey larger than their heads
|
...
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Lionfish and Caribbean reefs
|
...
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Post-encounter mechanisms (2)
|
z
|
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*Trophic mutualisms
|
...
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*Character displacement
|
...
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*Fig. 11.6 Chemical warfare in plants
|
...
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Mass Extinction
|
Large proportions of Earth's species were driven to extinction worldwide in a relatively short time (a million years or less)
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*Macroparasites
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*Three basic interacting controls on the number of trophic levels in an ecosystem include:
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Ecology
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The scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment, the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms
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Pinon pine and Clark's nutcracker
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Parasitism
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Fig 6.9 Gene Flow and insecticide resistance
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An allele that causes resistance to organophosphate insecticides arises by mutation in one population and then spreads (by gene flow) to two other populations. When mosquitoes in the two other populations are exposed to the insecticide, natural selection causes the frequency of the resistance allele to increase rapidly
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Mimicry
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*Fig 13.15 - Parasites can reproduce their host's geographic range (Fig 13.15 - American Chestnut)
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Speciation and sealevel fluctuation - e.g. The Tody
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z
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Parasitic birds as "passerine chickens"
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Developmental Adaptations of the cuckoo catfish (2)
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*Go over Fig 1.14 and text - Joint effects of nitrate and UV light on tadpole
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Phenotype (fig 6.5)
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Observable characteristics (vary within a population)
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Population
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z
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*Keystone species
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*Fig. 20.14 and 20.15 - just an overview of food web complexity, do not memorize
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Field Evidence for Competition
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Disruptive coloration
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Nectarivores and pollination biology
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Neotropical Kingfishers
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*Parasites - % of earth's species?
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Leaf cutter ants and fungi
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*Parasite
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*Fig. 12.10 - compensatory for herbivory
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Fig 6.23 Evolutionary Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Hypothetical Species
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As human activities remove large portions of a species' habitat, population sizes shrink and the distances between populations increase, causing evolutionary changes that increase the species' risk of extinction and decrease its potential for adaptive evolution
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How do ecologists view the "balance of nature"?
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They don't believe in it
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Consumer
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An organism that obtains its energy by eating other organisms or their remains
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*Fig. 20.9 Bottom-up and top-down control of productivity plus text
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*Niche model
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Lotka-Voltera model for Predator-Prey Osciallations
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*Bullhorn acacia and pseudomyrmex ants
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*Biotic resistance
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*Fig 20.17 Direct and indirect effects of trophic interactions
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Social parasitism
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*Fig 14.5 Cockroach gut mutualist and text
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Human bot flies - note that it is rare in human, main hosts other mammals such as cattle
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*Please go over Table 13.1 and Text - Ectoparasitism endoparasitism and list one advantage and disadvantage of each
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Countershading
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Mullerian mimicry
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