| Terms |
Definitions |
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shells
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the electrons in an atom are located in various energy levels that are located at different distances from the nucleus
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reaction quotient
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Q, the numerical value that results when non-equlilibrium concentrations are inserted into the equilibrium expression. When the system reaches equilibrium, the reaction quotient becomes the equilibrium constant
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orbital
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wave function, quantum mechanical mathematical description of the location of electrons. The electrons in a particular subshell are distributed among these volumes of space of equal energies
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Compounds
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pure substances that have a fixed proportion of elements
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resonance
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a way of describing a molecular structure that cannot be represented by a single Lewis structure. Several different Lewis structures are used, each differing only by the position of electron pairs
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Charles's Law
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states that there is a direct relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas, if the pressure and the amount are kept constant
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standard enthalpy of formation
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deltaH^o sub f, the change in enthalpy when 1 mol of the compound is formed from its elements and when all substances are in their standard states
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solubility product constant
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K sub sp, the equilibrium constant associated with sparingly soluble salts and is the product of the ionic concentrations, each one raised to the power of the coefficient in the balanced chemical equation
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Gay-Lussac's law
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describes the direct relationship between the pressure of a gas and its Kelvin temperature, if the volume and amount are held constant
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Graham's law
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states that the speed of gas diffusion (mixing of gases due to their kinetic energy) or effusion (movement of a gas through a tiny opening) is inversely proportional to the square root of the gases' molecular mass
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molarity
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M, concentration term that represents the moles of solute per liters of solution
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system
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a thermodynamics term meaning the part of the universe being studiedd
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pressure
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the force exerted per unit of surface area
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quantized
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that there could be only certain distinct energies associated with a state of the atom
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VSPER theory
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valence shell electron-pair repulsion, says that the electron pairs around a central atom will try to get as far as possible from each other in order to minimize the repulsive forces. Used to predict molecular geometry
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SI system
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the system of units used in science, which is related to the metric system
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base dissociation constant (Kb)
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equilibrium constant associated with the dissociation of a weak base in water
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Ideal gas
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a gas that obeys the five postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
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reaction mechanism
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the sequence of individual reactions that occur in an overall reaction in going from reactants to products
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anode
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the electrode at which oxidation is taking place
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amu
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1/12 the mass of a carbon atom that contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons
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sublimation
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going directly from the solid state to the gaseous state without ever having become a liquid
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Combined gas equation
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relates the pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas, assuming the amount is held constant
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mass number
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the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom
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reverse osmosis
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takes place when the pressure on the solution side exceeds the osmotic pressure and solvent molecules are forces back through the semipermeable membrane into the solvent side
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atomic orbital
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region of space in which it is most likely to find a specific electron in an atom
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chemical equilibrium
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when two exactly opposite reactions are occurring at the same place and time, with the same rates of reaction
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buffer capacity
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the ability of the buffer to resist a change in pH
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wave function
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a mathematical description of the electron's motion
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Crystalline solids
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solids that display a very regular ordering of the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) in a three-dimensional structure called the crystal lattice
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Hydrocarbons
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are organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen
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speed of light
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c, the speed at which all electromagnetic radiation travels in a vacuum, 3x10^8 m/s
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cell notation
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a shorthand notation for representing a galvanic cell
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unsaturated solution
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a solution that has less than the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent
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reduction
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gain of electrons in a redox reaction
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standard reduction potentials
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the voltage associated with a half-reaction shown in the form of reduction
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Kinetic Molecular Theory
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attempts to represent the properties of gases by modeling the gas particles themselves at the microscopic level
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viscosity
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the resistance to flow of a liquid
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cathode
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the electrode in an electrochemical cell at which reduction takes place
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Effective nuclear charge
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the overall attraction that an electron experiences, which is less than the actual nuclear charge, because other electrons interfere with the attraction of the protons for the electron being considered
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Electrolysis
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a reaction in which electricity is used to decompose a compound
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precipitate
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an insoluble product that forms in a solution; the formation of a solid from ions in solution
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standard molar entropies
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S^o, the entropies associated with 1 mole of a substance in its standard state
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body-centered unit cell
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unit cell that has particles located at the corners of a cube and in the center of the cube
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intermolecular forces
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attractive or repulsive forces between molecules caused by partial charges
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percent yield
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the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield, with the resultant multiplied by 100
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Coordination compounds
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a type of complex in which a metal atoms is surrounded by ligands
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cations
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positively charged ions
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Tyndall effect
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exhibited when a light is shone through a colloid and is visible, owing to the reflection of the light off the larger colloid particles
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molecular formula
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actual formula, shows which elements are in the compound and the actual number of atoms of each element
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Concentration cell
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an electrochemical cell in which the same chemical species are used in both cell compartments. But differ in concentration
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oxidation
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loss of electrons
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amphoteric
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substances that act as either an acid or a base, depending on whether the other species is a base or an acid
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cathode compartment
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the electrolyte solution in which the cathode is immersed
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Ground state
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the lowest energy state that the electron can occupy
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colligative properties
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solution properties that are simply dependent of upon the number of solute particles, and not the type of solute
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alkali metals
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group one elements
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Concentration
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a measure of the amount of solute dissolved in the solvent
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Gas
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a state of matter that has neither definite shape nor volume
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neutralization reactions
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acid-base reactions in which an acid reacts with a base to give a salt and usually water
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Critical point
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the point on the phase diagram beyond which the gas and liqid phases are indistinguishable from each other
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Equilibrium constant
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the quantity calculated when the equilibrium concentrations of the chemical species are substituted into the reaction quotient
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reaction intermediate
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a substance that is formed but then consumed during the reaction mechanism
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nuclear belt of stability
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a plot of the number of neutrons vs the number of protons for the known stable isotopes
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absolute zero
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0 K and is the point at which all molecular motion ceases
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ionization energy
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IE, the energy needed to completely remove an electron from an atom in the vapor state
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liquid
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a state of matter that has a definite volume but no definite shape
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calorie
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the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water to 1 degree C
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net ionic equation
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equation that is written by dropping out the spectator ions and showing only those chemical species that are involved in the chemical reaction
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Electrode compartment
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the solutions in which the electrodes are immersed
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pi bonds
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result from the overlap of atomic orbitals on both sides of a line connecting two atomic nuclei
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mechanism
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the sequence of steps that a reaction undergoes in going from reactants to products
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Electromagnetic spectrum
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radiant energy (composed of gamma rays), X-rays, ultraviolet, visible, etc.
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nonmetals
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elements that have properties opposite of those of metals. Some are gases, poor conductors of heat and electricity, are neither malleable nor ductile, and tend to gain or share electrons in their chemical reactions
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ion-dipole intermolecular force
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attractive forces that occur between ions and polar molecules
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weak electrolytes
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only partially ionize or dissociate in solution
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Endothermic
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reactions that absorb energy from their surroundings
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capillary action
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spontaneous rising of a liquid through a narrow tube against the force of gravity
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buffers
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solutions that resist a change in pH when an acid or base is added to them
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valence electrons
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the electrons in the outermost energy level/shell. Normally considered to be only the s and p electrons in the outermost energy level
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alkenes
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hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-to-carbon double bond
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water dissociation constant
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K sub w, the equilibrium constant associated with the ionization of pure water
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atomic solids
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solid where the individual atoms are held in place by London forces
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
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states that all processes that occur spontaneously move in the direction of an increase in entropy of the universe (system + surroundings)
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Functional group
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reactive groups on a compound that react in a characteristic way no matter what the rest of the molecule consists of
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limiting reactant
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the reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction
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metalloids
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a group of elements that have properties of both moetals and non-metals
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Boyle's law
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states that there is an inverse relationship between the volume and pressure of a gas, if the temperature and amount are kept constant
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phase changes
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changes of state
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anions
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negatively charged ions
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catalyst
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substance that speeds up the reaction rate and is (theoretically) recoverable at the end of the reaction in an unchanged form
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single displacement (replacement) reactions
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reactions in which atoms of an element replace the atoms of another element in a compound
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ionic bond
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bond that results from some metal losing electrons to form cations and some nonmetal gaining those electrons to form an anion
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Combustion reactions
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redox reactions in qhich the chemical species rapidly combines with oxygen and usually emits heat and light
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thermodynamics
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the study of energy and its transformation
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magnetic quantum number
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m sub l, describes the orientation of the orbital around the nucleus
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Henry's law
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states that the solubility of a gas will increase with increasing partial pressure of the gas
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Nernst equation
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allows the calculation of the cell potential of a galvanic cell that is not at standard conditions
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Law of Conservation of Matter
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states that, in ordinary chemical reactions, matter is neither created nor destroyed
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activation energy
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minimum amount of energy that must be supplied to initiate a chemical reaction
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boiling point
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the temperature at which a liquid boils
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semipermeable membrane
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a thin porous film that allows the passage of solvent molecules but not solute particles
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amorphous solids
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solids that lack extensive ordering of the particles
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calorimetry
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laboratory technique used to measure the heat released or absorbed during a chemical or physical change
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unsaturated
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organic compounds have carbons that do not have the maximum number of bonds to other atoms; there is at least one carbon-to-carbon double or triple bond present
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beta particle
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an electron
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weak base
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a base that only partially ionizes in solution
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simple cubic unit cell
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unit cell that has particles located at the corners of a simple cube
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positron
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essentially, an electron that has a positive charge
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Gibbs free energy
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G, a thermodynamic function that combines the enthalpy, entropy, and temperature. Delta G is the best indicator of whether or not a reaction will be spontaneous
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Electrode
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the solid part of the electrochemical cell that conducts the electrons that are involved in the redox reaction
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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states that the total energy of the univers is constant
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molecular equation
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an equation in which both the reactants and products are shown in the undissociated form
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organic chemistry
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the study of the chemistry of carbon
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network covalent solids
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solids that have covalent bonds joining the atoms together in an extremely large crystal lattice
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ion-induced dipole intermolecular forces
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attractive forces that occur between an ion and a nonpolar molecule
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Hydrogen bonding
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a specific type of dipole-dipole attraction in which a hydrogen atom is polar-covalently bonded to noe of the following extremely electronegative elements; O,N,F
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Endpoint
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in a titration, the point signaled by the indication that an equivalent amount of base has been added to the acid sample, or vice versa
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manometer
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an instrument used to measure the gas pressure inside a container
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barometer
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an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure
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triple point
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combination of temperature and pressure on a phase diagram at which all three states of matter can exist in equilibrium
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isoelectronic
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having same electronic configuration
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titrant
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the solution in a titration that has a known concentration
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Indicators
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substances that change their color during a titration to indicate the endpoint
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phase diagram
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a graph representing the relationship of the states of matter of a substance to temperature and pressure
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molar mass
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the mass in grams of one mole of a substance
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Double replacement (replacement or metathesis reaction)
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a chemical reaction where at least one insoluble product is formed from the mixing of two solutions
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Heat capacity
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the quantity of heat needed to change the temperature by 1K
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unimolecular reactions
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reactions in which a single chemical species decomposes or rearranges
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Electrochemical cells
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cells that use indirect electron transfer to produce electricity by a redox reaction, or use electricity to produce the desired redox reaction
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ion-product
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a constant like the solubility product constant, but represents a system that is not at equilibrium
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thermochemistry
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part of thermodynamics dealing with the changes in heat that take place during chemical processes
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bimolecular reactions
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chemical reactions that involve the collision of two chemical species
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Gamma emission
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a radioactive decay process in which high-energy, short-wavelength photons that are similar to X-rays are given off
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root mean square speed
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the average velocity of the gas particles
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isomers
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compounds that have the same molecular formulas but different structural formulas
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surroundings
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a thermodynamic term meaning the part of the universe that is not the system being studied
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mass percent
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the mass of the solute divided by the mass of the solution and then multiplied by 100%
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molecular solids
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solids that have their lattices composed of molecules held in place by London forces, dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding
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mole
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the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12
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strong acid
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an acid that ionizes completely in solution
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activity series for metals
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lists metals in order of decreasing ease of oxidation
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noble gases
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group 18 elements that are very unreactive owing to their filled valence shell
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radioactivity
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the spontaneous decay of an unstable isotope to a more stable one
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suspension
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a heterogeneous mixture in which the particles are large (in excess of 1000 mm)
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Electron cloud (density)
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a volume of space in which the probability of finding the electron is high
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basic
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a solution whose pH is greater that 7
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nucleus
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a dense core of positive charge at the center of the atom that contains most of the mass of the atom
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vapor pressure
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the pressure exerted by the gaseous molecules that are at equilibrium with a liquid in a closed container
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Equivalence point
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the point in the titration where the moles of H+ in the acid solution have been exactly neutralized when the same number of moles of OH-
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main-group elements
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groups 1,2, 13-18
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Crisscross rule
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can be used to help determine the formula of an ionic compound
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molecule
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a covalently bonded compound
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molality
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m, the moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
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transmutation
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a nuclear reaction that results in the creation of the one element from another one
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acidic
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a solution whose pH is less than 7
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alpha particle
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a He nucleus with two protons and two neutrons
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Hess's law
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states that if a reaction occurs in a series of steps, then the enthalpy change for the overall reaction is simply the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps
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strong base
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a base that ionizes completely in solution
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Electronegativity
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EN, a measure of the attractive force that an atom exerts on a bonding pair of electrons
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Dimensional analysis
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also called "factor label method", a way to generate a correct setup for a mathematical problem
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Lewis electron-dot structure
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a structural formula that represents the element and its valence electrons
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stoichiometry
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the calculation of the amount (mass, moles, particles) of one substance in the chemical reaction through the use of another
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kinetic energy
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energy of motion
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boiling
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the process of going from a liquid state to a gaseous state
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oxidizing agent
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the reactant being reduced
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bond order
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relates to the bonding and antibonding electrons in the molecular obital theory (# of electrons in bonding MOs - # electrons in antibonding MOs)/2
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transition elements
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groups 3-12 elements
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molar heat capacity
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C, the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1K
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nonelectrolytes
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substances that do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted
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solid
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a state of matter that has both a definite shape and a definite volume
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potential energy
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stored energy
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strong electrolytes
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completely ionize or dissociate in solution
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Avogadro's number
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number of particles (atoms/molecules/ions) in a mole, = 6.022 x 10^23 particles
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Frequency
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v, the number of waves that pass a point per second
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weak acid
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an acid that only partially ionizes in solution
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aqueous solution
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solution in which water is the solvent
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Colloids
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homogeneous mixtures in which solute diameters fall in between solutions and suspensions
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Homogeneous catalyst
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a catalyst that is in the same phase or state of matter as the reactants
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reactants
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the starting materials in a chemical reaction, which get converted into different substances called products
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Avogadro's law
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states that there is a direct relationship between the volume and the number of moles of gas
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Covalent bonding
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bonding where one or more electron pairs are shared between two atoms
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Groups
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families, the vertical columns on the periodic table
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spin quantum number
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m sub s, indicates the direction the electron is spinning
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subshells
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shells within the shells that have slightly different energies
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reactive site
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the place on the molecule at which the reaction takes place
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metals
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normally solids, shiny, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable) and extruded into wires (ductile). Chemically, this class of elements tend to lose electrons in reactions
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kinetics
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the study of the speed of reactions
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saturated solution
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a solution in which one has dissolved the maximum amount of solute per given amount of solvent at a given temperature
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salt bridge
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often an inverted U-tube that contains a gel containing a concentrated electrolyte solution, used in an electrochemical cell to maintain electrical neutrality in the cell compartments
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titration
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a laboratory procedure in which a solution of known concentration is used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution
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van't Hoff factor
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i, the ratio of moles of solute particles formed to moles of solute dissolved in solution
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Hund's rule
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states that electrons are added to the orbitals, half filling them all before any pairing occurs
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Half-life
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t sub .5, the amount of time that it takes for a reactant concentration to decrease to one-half its initial concentration
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Crystal lattice
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a three-dimensional structure that crystalline solids occupy
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surface tension
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the amount of force that is required to break through the molecular layer at the surface of a liquid
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Excited state
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in an atom, an energy state of higher energy than normal
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Formation constant
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the equilibrium constant fro the formation of a complex ion from a metal ion and ligands
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solvation
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the forming of a layer of bound solvent molecules around a solute
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Coordinate covalent bonds
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covalent bonds in which one of the atoms furnishes both of the electrons for the bond
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osmotic pressure
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the amount of pressure that must be exerted on a solution in order to prevent osmosis of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane
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Ideal gas equation
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relates the temperature, volume, pressure, and amount of a gas; PV=nRT
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Inert (inactive) electrode
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a solid conducting electrode in an electrochemical l cell that does not take part in the redoz reaction
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polyprotic acids
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acids that can donate more than one proton
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Entropy
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S, a measure of the disorder of a system
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alkynes
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hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-to-carbon triple bond
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state function
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a function that doesn't depend on the pathway, only the initial and final states
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nonpolar covalent bond
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bond where the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms involved in the bond
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Dilute
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a qualitiative term that refers to a solution that has a relatively small amound of solute in comparison to the amount of solvent
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van der Waals equation
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an equation that is a modification of the ideal gas equation to compensate for the behavior of real gases
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rate equation
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relates the speed of reaction to the concentration of reactants and has the form Rate=kA^m B^n... where k is the rate constant and m and n are the orders of reaction with respect to that specific reactant
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alkanes
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hydrocarbons that contain only single covalent bonds within the molecule
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mass-volume percent
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the mass of the solute divided by the volume of the solution and then multiplied by 100% to yield percentage
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joule
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J, the SI unit of energy
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solute
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the component of the solution that is there in the smallest amount
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intermediates
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chemical species that are produced and consumed during the reaction, but that do not appear in the overall reaction
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bases
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proton (H+) acceptors
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ternary compounds
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compounds containing three or more elements
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Dipole-dipole intermolecular force
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forces that occur between polar molecules
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structural isomers
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compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in how the atoms are attached to each other
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metathesis reaction
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a reaction where two substances exchange bonding partners
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neutral
|
7.00 pH
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valence bond theory
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describes covalent bonding as the overlap of atomic orbials to form a new kind of orbital, a hybrid orbital
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Electrolytic cells
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use electricity from an external source to produce a desired redox reaction
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Combination reactions
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reactions in which two or more reactants (elements or compounds) combine to form one product
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pascal
|
SI unit for pressure
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melting point
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the temperature at which a solid converts into the liquid state
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rate-determining step
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the slowest one of the reaction steps and controls the rate of the overall reaction
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line spectrum
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a series of fine lines of colors representing wavelengths of photons that are characteristic of a particular element
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Electron affinity
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the energy change that results from adding an electron to an atom or ion
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principal quantum number
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n, describes the size of the orbital and relative distance from the nucleus
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reducing agent
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the reactant undergoing oxidation in a redox reaction
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octet rule
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states that during chemical reactions, atoms lose, gain, or share electrons in order to achieve a filled valence shell, to complete their octet
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Diamagnetism
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the repulsion of a molecule from a magnetic field due to the prescence of all electrons in pairs
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order of reaction
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the exponent in the rate equation that indicates what effect a change in concentration of that particular reactant species wil have on the reaction rate
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acids
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acids are proton (H+) donors
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isotopes
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atoms of the same element (same number of protons) that have differing numbers of neutrons
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Electrolyte
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a substance which when dissolved in solution or melted, conducts an electrical current
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integrated rate law
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relates the change in the concentration of reactants or products over time
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periods
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the horizonal rows on the periodic table that have consecutive atomic numbers
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oxidation numbers
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bookkeeping numbers that allow chemists to do things like balance redox equations
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acid dissociation constant (Ka)
|
the equilibrium constant associated with a weak acid dissociation of water
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standard cell potential
|
E^o , the potential (voltage) associated with an electrochemical cell at standard conditions
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Inner transition elements
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the two horizongal groups that have been pulled out of the main body of the periodic table
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volume percent
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the volume of the solute divided by the volume of the solution and then multiplied by 100%
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Empirical formula
|
a chemical formula that tells us which elements are present in the compound and the simplest whole-number ratios of elements
|
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Heterogeneous catalyst
|
a catalyst that is in a different phase or state of matter from the reactants
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Face-centered unit cell
|
unit cell that has particles at the corners and one in the center of each face of the cube, but not in the center of the cube
|
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Concentrated
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a qualitative way of describing a solution that has a relatively large amount of solute in comparison to the solvent
|
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ionic equation
|
equation that shows the soluble reactants and products in the form of ions
|
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atomic number (z)
|
number of protons in an element's nucleus
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Le Chatlelier's principle
|
states that if a chemical system at equilibrium is stressed (disturbed), it will reestablish equilibrium by shifting of the reactions involved
|
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solvent
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the component of a solution that is present in the largest amount
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paramagnetism
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the attraction of a molecule to a magnetic field and is due to unpaired electrons
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monomers
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the repeating units that form macromolecules
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Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
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can be used to calculate the pH of a buffer
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Electron capture
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radioactive decay mode that involves the capturing of an electron from the energy level closest to the nucleus (1s) by a proton in the nucleus (which turns it into a neutron)
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Decomposition reactions
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reactions in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances
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rate constant
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k, proportionality constant that appears in the rate law and relates the concentration of reactants to the speed of reaction
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proof
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twice the volume percent of an aqueous ethyl alcohol solution
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actual yield
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the amount of product that is actually formed in a chemical reaction
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Electron configuration
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a condensed way of representing the pattern of electrons in an atom
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Enthalpy
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delta H, is the heat gained or lost by the system during constant pressure conditions
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Halogens
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group 17 elements
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preciptitation reactions
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reactions that involve the formation of an insoluble compound, a precipitate, from the mixing of two soluble compounds
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Aufbau principle
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states that there is a direct relationship between the volume and the number of moles of gas (22.4 L/mol)
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Electrochemistry
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the study of chemical reactions that produce electricity and chemical reactions that take place because electricity is supplied
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Exothermic
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a reaction that releases energy (heat) into its surroundings
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binary compounds
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compounds that consist of only two elements
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Hybrid orbitals
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atomic orbitals formed as a result of the mizing of the atomic orbitals of the atoms involved in a covalent bond
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saturated hydrocarbons
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hydrocarbons that are single bonded to the maximum number of other atoms
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angular momentum quantum number (l)
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the quantum number that describes the shape of the orbital
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Continuous spectrum
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a spectrum of light (like a rainbow)
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sigma bonds
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bonds that have the orbital overlap on a line drawn beween the two nuclei
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quantum numbers
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used to describe each electron within an atom corresponding to the orbital size, shape, and orientation in space
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unit cells
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repeating units in a crystal lattice
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Common-ion effect
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an application of Le Chatleier's principle to equilibrium systems of slightly soluble salts
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anode compartment
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the electrolyte solution in which the anode is immersed
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alkaline earth metals
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group two elements
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Galvanic (voltaic) cells
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electrochemical cells that produce electricity by a redox reaction
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macromolecules
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extremely large molecules
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Complex
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composed of a central atom, normally a metal, surrounded by atoms or goups of atoms called ligands
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solution
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a homogeneous mixture composed of solvent and one or more solutes
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Conjugate acid-base pair
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an acid-base pair that differs by only a single H+
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theoretical yield
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the maximum amount of product that can be formed
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spectator ions
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ions that are not actually involved in the chemical reaction taking place, but simply maintain electrical neutrality
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Coordination number
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the number of ligands that can covalently bond to the metal ion in the complex ion
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polar covalent bonds
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covalent bonds in which there is an unequal sharing of the bonding pair of electrons
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Heat of vaporization
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the heat needed to transform a liquid into a gas
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osmosis
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the passing of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane
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Dalton's law
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states that in a mixture of gases (A+B+C...) the total pressure is simply the sum of the partial pressures (the pressures associated with each individual gas)
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Elementary step
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the individual reaction s in the reaction mechanism or pathway
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molecular orbital theory
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MO theory of covalent bonding proposes that atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals that encompass the entire molecule
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redox reactions
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chemical reactions in which electrons are lost and gained
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supersaturated solution
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solution that has more than the maximum amount of solute dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature
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metallic solids
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solids that have metal atoms occupying the crystal lattice and held together by metallic bonding
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specific heat capacity (specific heat)
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c, the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1K
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amplitude
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height of a wave and is related to the intensity (or brightness for visible light) of the wave
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