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Cardiac muscle
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responsible for contraction of the heart
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Nervous System Transmission
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Between specific regions. Information depends on the signal's pathway, not the signal itself. Moves extremely quickly.
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Axons
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send nerve impulses from one body of nerves to another
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Homeotherm
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(common) an organism that has a relatively constant temperature
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Circulatory thermoregulatory adaptations
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Vasodilation - blood flow increases
Vasoconstriction - blood flow decreases
Countercurrent exchange - heat exchange between fluids flowin opposite directions. Ex. webbed feat of ducks.
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Four main categories of tissue
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Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous
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Natural protection from erosion by pepsin in the stomach
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The body secretes pepsinogen and HCl- separately so that only enough pepsin is formed to process food in the stomach and not destroy the stomach's lining. If there is an excess of pepsin, the mucus protects the stomach.
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Fibroblasts
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Cells that secrete proteins that form extracellular fibers
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Mechanical vs. Chemical Digestion
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Mechanical - churns the food. Ex. stomach contractions, chewing.
Chemical - chemical decomposition of food. Ex. pepsin breakdown macromolecules, salivary breakdown of glucose
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Evaporation
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Ectothermic heat transfer by which heat is lost through sweat and chemical evaporative cooling.
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Muscle tissue
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long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals
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Intracellular digestion
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food particles engulfed by endocytosis and broken down inside the cell
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Dendrites
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receives signals from other nerve bodies
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Insulation
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major thermoregulatory adaption in mammals and birds. Ex. Skin, feathers, fur, blubber
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Endocrine System Transmission
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Transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body. The EST may affect one or more regions throughout the body simultaneously. Hormone release is relatively slow but long lasting.
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Salivary glands
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Secrete salivary amylase which facilitates the breakdown of glucose.
Sublingual - beneath the tongue
Submandibular - beneath the mandible
Parotid - back of the throat
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Radiation
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Ectothermic heat transfer by which heat is absorbed through sunlight.
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Dental adaptation
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Dentition: an animal's assortment of teeth. Ex. snake fangs optimized for injection of venom.
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Cecum
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A part of the junction of the small and large intestine. The cecum allows for fermentation in a plant-containing diet before food continues into the large intestine.
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Physiology
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an organism's bodily functions
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Sphincters
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valves that regulate muscle contractions
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Essential amino acids
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Obtained through meat eggs and cheese:
- Leucine, methionine, valine, threonine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, tryptophan, and lysine
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Positve feedback loops
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Occur in animals, but do not usually contribute to homeostasis. Used by the body to intentionally exceed normal conditions. Ex. "Fight or flight" instinct: Adrenaline pumps at extreme levels to increase chances of survival.
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Anus
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Exit from the body. There's no good scientific phrasing. It's more of the butt.
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Sensor; response
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Fluctuations from normal body conditions are detected by a nerve sensor and trigger a response.
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Rectum
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End of the large intestine and the digestive system. Part of the butt.
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Conformer
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A feedback control loop. Allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
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Poikilotherm
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(rare) an organism with temperature that can safely vary with its environment
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Bone
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mineralized connective tissue that forms the skeleton
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Carbohydrate, protein, nucleic acid, and fat digestion
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Figure 41.13
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Epiglottis
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Covers the trachea when food is swallowed.
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Metabolic rate
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Amount of energy (measured in ATP) used per unit of time.
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Small intestine sections
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Small intestine = largest section of alimentary canal
Duodenum - largest section. Most of digestion occurs here. Chyme and digestive juices from gall bladder, pancreas, and liver mix here.
Jejunum - Absorption section of the small intestine. Follows the duodenum. Mainly absorbs nutrients and water.
Ilium - Home to the Asari. End absorption section of the small intestine that also mainly functions in absorbing nutrients and water.
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Stomach and intestinal adaptations
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Herbivores have a very long cecum to aid in the fermentation required for a plant-filled diet.
Ruminants are animals with compartmentalized stomachs that "chew the cud" of regurgitated food.
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Ligaments
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Fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones
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SMR
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Standard metabolic rate: metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature.
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Essential fatty acids
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Certain unsaturated fatty acids must be obtained through the diet.
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Tendons
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Fibrous tissue that attaches muscle to bone
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BMR
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Basal metabolic rate: metabolic rate at a "comfortable" temperature or at rest in an endotherm.
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Types of feeders
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Substrate feeders: animals that live in or around their food source.
Fluid feeders: animals that such nutrient-rich fluid from a living host.
Bulk feeders - eat relatively large amounts of food
Suspension feeders - sift small food particles from the water. Ex. collar cells
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Malnourishment
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long-term absence of one or more essential nutrients from the diet.
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Loose connective tissue
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binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
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Regulator
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A feedback control loop. Uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external/environment fluctuation.
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Taste bud locations
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Sour - sides of the tongue
Bitter - back of the tongue
Sweet - front and tip of the tongue
Salt - all over the tongue
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Thermoregulation
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the process by which animals maintain internal temperature
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Parietal cells
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secrete hydrogen and chloride ions separately
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Chief cells
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secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated into pepsin when mixed with HCl- in the stomach.
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Neurons
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nerve cells, transmits nerve impulses
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Hypothalmus
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The physiological thermostat; a gland in the brain that triggers thermoregulatory responses.
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Cartilage
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strong and flexible support material. Substitute for bones in some organisms (ex. sharks)
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Bioenergetics
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The overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
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Connective tissue
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binds and supports other tissues
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Undernourishment
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result of a diet that supplies less chemical energy than the body requires
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Appendix
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vestigial organ extending from the cecum
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Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
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Cell < Tissue < Muscle< Organ < Organ System
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Behavioral responses
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Organisms do things to promote or inhibit heat absorption/loss. Ex. adjusted dragonfly posture to increase surface area for sunlight.
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Large intestine
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The end of the alimentary canal
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Skeletal muscle
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striated muscle, responsible for voluntary movement
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Cooling by evaporative heat loss
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Sweating or bathing helps moisten the skin.
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Interstitial Fluid
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the space between cells
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Three main shapes of cells
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Cuboidal, Columnar, Squamous
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Organic Molecules
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Organic carbon and organic nitrogen
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Ectothermic thermoregulation
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animals gain heat from external sources. Ex. most invertebrates, fish, cold-blooded organisms, and non-avian reptiles. Ectotherms can also tolerate greater internal temperature fluctuation.
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Homeostasis
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maintenance of internal balance regardless of external environment
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Lacteals
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The core of each villi/microvilli that contains lymph, a fluid that conducts nutrients back to the heart.
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Elastic tissue
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stretches and snaps back to its original length
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Pharynx
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junction of the oral cavity and the trachea
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Smooth muscle
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responsible for involuntary movement or involuntary bodily functions
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Negative feedback
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the response to deviation from homeostasis. Returns a variable to either a normal range or a set point.
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Stratified cell arrangement
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multiple tiers of cells
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Reticular tissue
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Joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues
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Hepatic-portal vein
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a blood vessel that leads directly to the liver
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Simple cell arrangement
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single layer
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Acclimatization
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normal internal set points change as an organism adapts to new external conditions
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Anatomy
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the study of the biological form of an organism
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Collagenous tissue
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provides strength and flexibility
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Vitamins
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organic molecules required in small amounts. There are 13. Two types: fat-soluble and water-soluble.
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Endothermic thermoregulation
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animals generate heat by metabolism. Ex. birds and mammals.
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Neutralization of chyme
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Cholecystokinin (CCK) triggers the release of bile from the gallbladder and enzymes from the pancreas. Secretin, when chyme reaches the duodenum, slows digestion and allows gastric juices from the stomach, pancreas, and gallbladder to mix.
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Peristalsis
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rhythmic contractions of muscles in the walls of the alimentary canal.
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Enzyme in the Stomach
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Gastric juice: pepsinogen and HCl- = pepsin.
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Adjusting metabolic heat production
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Shivering and increased movement - muscles rapidly contracting, increasing blood flow.
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Adipose Tissue
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Stores fat for insulation and energy.
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Four main stages of food processing
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Ingestion - eating
Digestion - break down of food into absorption-sized molecules
Absorption - uptake of nutrients by somatic cells
Elimination - passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment
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Villi and Microvilli
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Finger-like structures in the small intestine that facilitate absorption of nutrients.
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Coordination and control depends on ____________.
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The endocrine system and the nervous system
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Conduction
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Ectothermic heat transfer by which heat is transferred by direct contact to a surface.
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Size vs. Metabolic Rate
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Rate per gram is inverse to body size among similar animals. Ex. the most efficient metabolism is found in the smallest animals.
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Pseudostratified cell arrangement
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single layer but cells vary in size
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Macrophages
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cells that join tissues of the immune system
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Alimentary canal
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the digestive pathway, usually beginning with a mouth and ending with an anus
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Chyme
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The substance to which food is converted in the stomach
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Epithelial tissue
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Lines the organs and cavities within the body; covers the outside of the body
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Overnourishment and Obesity
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The body processes too many nutrients and usable food components, leading to an excess of almost everything in the body, which can lead to cardiovascular disease, certain types of cancer, and obesity.
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Nervous tissue
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senses stimuli and transmits signals
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Mucus
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protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
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Extracellular digestion
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breakdown outside of the cells. Ex. starfish pushing out their stomachs.
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Energy Sources and Stores
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When blood glucose level rises, the pancreas releases insulin to facilitate glucose breakdown. When blood glucose level is too low, the pancreas releases less insulin.
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Glial cells/Glia
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nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
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Convection
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Ectothermic heat transfer by which heat is transferred by the air.
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Bolus
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"ball" of food, chewed, mixed with saliva and ready to enter the esophagus.
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Esophagus
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passage tube from the mouth (pharynx) to the stomach
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Set point; stimulus
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Fluctuations above or below a normal set point serve as a stimulus to return the body to normalcy.
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Blood
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Composed of red blood cells and fragments of cells suspended in the blood plasma complex
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