| Terms |
Definitions |
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workplace themes
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labeled categories used to group related observations, stakeholder comments, or other data collected in a field study
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interpretation (of an information display)
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the process of recognizing how perceived information is related to the objects and actions provided by a user interface
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FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions)
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questions about a system that are asked and answered multiple times are collected and made easily accessible to all users
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tradeoff
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an issue (often in design) that is understood to have competing arguments, usually contrasting positive and negative impacts of an option
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user interface prototype
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an operational version or mock-up of a system that supports interaction between the user and the system that is used for user testing and iterative design
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widget
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a user interface control (e.g., a menu or scroll bar), often predefined by the windowing system used to build a user interface
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grammar
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composition rules that describe how commands or other language elements can be combined to form syntactically correct expressions
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conversational agents
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software agents that are interact with the user using natural language and that are often given a human-like appearance
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focus + context
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a visualization in which one part of an information structure is presented in detail relative to the surrounding context
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user reaction survey
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a questionnaire completed by a usability test participant during or after interaction with a system or prototype (sometimes called a post-test)
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nonverbal communication
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the body language, facial expressions, gestures, and other non-language cues that extend and aid interpretation of normal conversations
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tacit knowledge
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knowledge that people have in an inarticulate form, which they may not be able to produce or explain on demand, but which they can enact, for example know-how about exceptions that arise in a work setting
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problem scenario
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a story of current practice developed to reveal aspects of the stakeholders and their activities that have implications for design
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radar view
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an overview of a shared workspace that includes an outline or other indication of the portion of the workspace that is being viewed by each collaborator
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visual design program
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a set of visual design features and relationships that are deliberately repeated to create consistency and coherence among screens, dialog boxes, and other user interface elements
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mobile computing
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use of computing systems outside normal office or work environments, particularly while moving around in the physical world
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information design
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presentation and organization of task objects and actions in a way that facilitates the user’s perception, interpretation, and understanding
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level (of a variable)
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one of multiple possible values of an experimental variable used in a usability test; the levels of independent variables form the experimental conditions
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vertical prototype
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a user interface prototype that illustrates all of a system’s functionality and user interface but for just one or a small set of tasks
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stakeholder diagram
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a sketch of major stakeholders with interconnections indicating the relations and dependencies among the different groups
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fisheye view
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a visualization in which one part of an information structure is presented in detail relative to the surrounding context
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workflow system
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a business support system that operates on an explicit model of task procedures; this model is used to plan, coordinate, and track interrelated tasks
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closure
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a Gestalt perceptual principle stating that a perceivers are likely to fill in small gaps in a figure in order to see it as complete (and thus more simple)
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grid-based design
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an information design strategy in which a grid is defined to specify the physical scale of visual elements, their relative position, and axes of symmetry
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breakdown
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an episode of interaction in which a system does not work in the real world as planned or expected
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retrospective interview
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a user interview conducted soon after a task has been completed to determine what usability issues stand out in a user’s memory of the interaction; sometimes the user’s memory may be prompted with a videotape or other records of activity
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visual language
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the features of an information design (e.g., menu style, font type and size, button shape and size) that are repeated across visual displays to create a sense of consistency and coherence
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metaphor
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a known concept that is used to understand a new concept by analogy
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sociotechnical systems theory
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an approach to software development in which the information technology system and the surrounding organization are analyzed, designed, and iterated as a single co-evolving system.
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software agent
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a computational entity that observes users’ behavior, make inferences about their goals and needs, and offers suggestions or other helpful advice
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usability laboratory
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one or more rooms designed to simulate office or other computer use settings, usually instrumented with software and hardware for capturing the user’s behavior as he or she works through a set of tasks
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user model
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a representation (typically computer-based) of the knowledge and mental activities involved in use of a computer system, often used to make predictions about system usability
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between-subjects design
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a usability test structure in which a separate group of participants is exposed to each level of an independent variable
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immersive environment
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a virtual reality simulation in which the user wears special headgear, eyeglasses, or other input devices so that the simulated world is experienced as a three-dimensional space
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common ground
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mutual expectations of communication partners that help them predict and interpret what is said
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severity (of a usability problem)
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a judgement about how much impact an observed or analyzed usability problem will have on actual use
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white space
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the parts of a graphical display that contain no graphical elements
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command language
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a structured set of expressions that a computer interprets as requests for information and services
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avatar
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an icon or other visual depiction used to represent the user in an information display
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stakeholder
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any individual or organization with an interest in the process or product of an analysis or design project
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production paradox
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many users are highly motivated to continually accomplish real results, and as a result are often unwilling to take time to learn how to best achieve any given result
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software logging
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instrumentation of a system such that it automatically records and time-stamps user actions and system reactions
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usability evaluation
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any activity, either analytic or empirical, directed at assessing or understanding the usability of an interactive system or prototype
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prototype
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an operational model of a design or software development proposal, usually created for testing and feedback purposes
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information visualization
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a representational technique in which properties of data are mapped to visual features and rendered as a spatial display
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Likert scale
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a rating scale used to gather subjective judgements, where an assertion about the task or system is made, and users rate the level of their agreement
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mixed design
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a usability test structure in which the independent variables are manipulated in a combination of within-subjects and between-subjects conditions
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transfer of learning
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a learning and memory phenomenon in which what is learned in one situation facilitates understanding and behavior in a similar situation.
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point-of-view
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a technique used during the design of interactive systems in which the designer adopts a computational perspective on the task objects in a scenario.
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software crisis
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the failure of the software industry to keep up with the demand for systems and applications of greated complexity, reflected in cost overruns, late delivery, and ineffective and unreliable systems
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analytic evaluation
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usability evaluation based on a careful analysis or theoretical modeling of user interface features, usually carried out by usability experts
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change score
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a difference between two numerical measures gathered from the same participant, one measured before a usage experience takes place, and one afterwards
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mental model
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a cognitive structure of concepts and procedures that users refer to when selecting relevant goals, choosing and executing appropriate actions, and understanding what happens when they interact with a computer system (or other tool)
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dialog design
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the specification of each step of user input and system response during a user interaction sequence
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mistake
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when an inappropriate system goal is selected and pursued
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localization
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a design strategy in which global interaction and exchange is supported by adapting information and user interface designs to particular regions and cultures
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interval variable
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data measured on a scale for which any two contiguous values are equi-distant
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evolutionary development
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an approach to system development in which a version of the system is created as early as possible and then expanded or refined in an incremental fashion as more system requirements and constraints are discovered
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MUD (Multi-user Domain)
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a persistent collaborative environment that is modeled on a geographic space
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scenario mock-up
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one or more screen designs or other physical artifacts, created to illustrate key system states described by a scenario
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think-aloud protocol
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a usability evaluation method in which the user speaks out loud his or her goals, plans, behaviors, and reactions while using an interactive system
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longitudinal study
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ranalysis of one or more user behaviors or attitudes over an extended period of time, often in a real world usage setting
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critical subtasks
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the key features of a scenario that are expected to influence usability, and thus are carefully specified and evaluated continuingly during iterative design
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inquiry method
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an analysis method where the goal is to raise questions and prompt discussion that will lead to a richer understanding of a problem
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asynchronous collaboration
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computer-mediated shared activity that does not take place in real time (see synchronous collaboration)
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floor control
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the mechanism by which users take and relinquish input control in a shared work system
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site map
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an overview of a large information space (typically a Web site) that may be of a textual form (e.g., a table of contents), a diagram, or an image
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participatory analysis
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a phase of cooperative or participatory design where users are presented with records of their own or other users’ behavior, and asked to reflect on features of interest
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multiple overlapping windows
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a user interface technique in which parallel tasks are presented and pursued in different windows open simultaneously; the layering of windows mirrors the activity history of each task
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artifact
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a designed object or tool used in support of an activity
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root concept
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a multi-faceted description of the starting premises of a design project that includes a high-level vision, basic rationale, stakeholders, and starting assumptions
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validity (of a usability evaluation)
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the extent to which the conditions of an evaluation (users, setting, tasks) are representative of real world use
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feedback
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information generated and communicated by a computer system in response to input from the user; typically it is provided to guide or confirm task-relevant behavior
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requirements specification
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a document listing and describing the features that a system under development is expected to provide
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MOO (Multi-user Domain Object-Oriented)
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a MUD where the characters, their behavior, and all other services are built and extended using an object-oriented programming language
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claims feature
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an element of a situation or an interactive system that has positive or negative consequences for people in this or similar situations
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inheritance
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a technique used in object-oriented programming to share attributes and behavior among related classes; superclasses specify common behaviors, and subclasses extend the superclasses with specialized attributes or behaviors
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articulation work
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the collaborative effort required to document, exchange, schedule, refine, and otherwise coordinate shared activities
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direct manipulation
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a user interface style in which system objects are represented visually and can be manipulated in ways analogous to how objects are manipulated in the real world (e.g., pointing, grabbing, dragging)
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multiple coordinated views
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a visualization technique in which complementary views of an underlying information structure are presented, manipulated, and updated simultaneously (see also tiled display)
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ordinal variable
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data measured on a scale that has an inherent linear sequence or order
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learn by doing
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a strategy exhibited by many learners (especially those with task-domain or computer experience) in which they try to accomplish tasks as they learn
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benchmark task
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a standard task that is used to comparatively evaluate designs, measuring users' performance on the task with different versions or systems
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formative evaluation
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usability analyses carried out during system development with the goal of identifying usability problems and guiding redesign
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hypothetical stakeholders
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imaginary persons with characteristics that are typical of a stakeholder group, developed to serve as actors in analysis and design scenarios
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system functionality
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the information a system holds or accesses, the kinds of operations that are permitted on this information, and the results that are returned by these operations
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Gulf of Execution
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the psychological distance between the task goals of a user and the actions required to achieve these goals with a computer system
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activity design
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the first phase of reasoning about a new software system, in which the problems and opportunities of current practice are transformed into new ways of behaving
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subjective reactions
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a user’s personal responses, judgements, or opinions before, during, or after interaction with a computer system
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user interface
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the physical representations and procedures that are provided for viewing and interacting with the system functionality.
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contextual inquiry
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a method used in requirements analysis and formative evaluation, in which people are observed as they carry out their normal tasks, and questioned about interesting or confusing episodes
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usability
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the quality of an interactive computer system with respect to ease of learning, ease of use, and user satisfaction
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hypothesis
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a prediction of a causal relation between one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables
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scaffolding
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an instructional technique in which people are given support of some kind (often tool-based) that allows them to carry out, and thereby learn about, tasks that they otherwise would be unable to do
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self-reflection
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a usability evaluation method in which users are asked to remember and reflect about their own goals, plans, behaviors, and reactions
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Wizard of Oz (prototype)
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a software system simulation, in which someone hides behind the scenes to interpret and generate meaningful responses to a user’s input
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information layering
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a documentation technique wherein help information is organized into successively more detailed levels accessed on an as-needed basis
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proxy server
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an intermediate server that intercepts and assists in processing the requests sent by a client to a server on a network; the technique is often used to improve the quality or latency of a server’s response
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roomware
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furniture or other objects in a room that have been augmented with computational powers designed to be useful for the activities conducted in the room
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breadth (of a hierarchy)
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the average number of choices at any level in a hierarchical information structure
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opportunistic behavior
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the tendency for users to generate and pursue goals suggested by manifest elements of the user interface
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Fitts' Law
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time to point to a target is proportional to the distance from the target divided by the width of the target
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pragmatics (of a user interaction device)
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the physical behaviors that are required to manipulate the input or output devices in a user interface
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content analysis
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a summarization and interpretation method in which qualitative data like behavioral observations or user comments are grouped by similarity and labeled
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electronic brainstorming
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a computer-mediated discussion in which participants are able to contribute ideas freely and in parallel, often anonymously so as to minimize social inhibitions
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technological determinism
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the view that technology is the single most important factor in determining the success of an organization
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iterative development
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an approach to software development in which the design specification is continually modified through prototyping and testing activities
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requirements analysis
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the detailed study of stakeholders and their current situation that is used to identify problems and opportunities to be addressed by a new system
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mediated evaluation
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an empirical usability evaluation in which the content and structure of the usability test materials are guided by a prior analytic evaluation
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anthropomorphism
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considering machines (especially computers) as if they have human capabilities or responsibilities
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default (in a user interface)
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a pre-set input string or other user input that is offered as a likely input value; users can simply accept this input rather than generating their own
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independent variable
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an attribute of a usability test situation that is manipulated to determine if it influences outcome measures (see dependent variable)
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cognitive walkthrough
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an expert critique of a user interface that involves simulating the use of a system and analyzing possible problems in goal selection, planning, or action execution
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keyboard short-cut
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a brief sequence of keypresses that is assigned to, and can be substituted for, a graphical user interaction sequence
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pilot test
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a small study carried out prior to a large-scale study in order to practice and refine usability test materials, procedures, or data collection technique
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interaction design
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mechanisms for accessing and manipulating the elements of an information design to facilitate the user’s goal selection, action planning, and action execution
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demonstration
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a documentation technique in which a sequence of user inputs and system responses are animated, so that the user can see what actions to perform and what system response to expect in return
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distributed cognition
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a framework analyzing how information and processing activitiy is distributed throughout a situation—across the mental states of collaborating individuals, their communications with each other, and the states of task-relevant artifacts and tools
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Gulf of Evaluation
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the psychological distance between what is displayed by a computer and the user’s understanding of how it relates to current task goals
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PICTIVE
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Plastic Interface for Technology Initiatives through Video Exploration, a participatory design technique addressing user interface layout
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depth (of a hierarchy)
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the average number of intermediate nodes between the root of a hierarchical information structure a terminating node
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designer’s model
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the mental representation of a design held by a designer, sometimes shared via design documentation like scenarios or feature lists
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dependent variable
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a usability outcome that is measured to determine if there are effects of system variations or other test characteristics (see independent variable)
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proximity
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a Gestalt perceptual principle stating that objects positioned near one another are more likely to be seen as comprising a group
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affordance
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perceptual characteristics of an object that make it obvious what the object can do and how it can be manipulated
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haptic feedback
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kinesthetic or force feedback provided by a user interface, often to convey physical characteristics of computational objects and media
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redundant coding
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multiple perceptual cues signal the same information
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baseline
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task performance or other usability outcomes that are measured under normal conditions and then used as a basis for comparison to other conditions
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intelligent tutoring system
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an online training system that models user knowledge and progress through pre-analyzed learning tasks, and uses this model to make suggestions, correct errors, answer questions, or provide other learning support
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remote usability evaluation
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collection of usability problem reports by users in the course of their actual work with a computer system
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usability specifications
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critical or typical user tasks that are decomposed into subtasks, associated with target usability outcomes, and iteratively evaluated to guide redesign work.
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presence (in a simulated world)
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the extent to which users of a virtual reality system feel as if they are moving within and experiencing the simulated environment
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design rationale
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arguments for why (or why not) a feature or set of features should be incorporated into a design
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self-instruction
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an approach in which people learn on their own using standalone documentation, tutorials, and tools
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usability inspection
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an analytic method in which usability experts examine the user interaction required to perform central or critical tasks with an interactive system or prototype, looking for problematic aspects of user input or system response
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horizontal prototype
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a user interface prototype that illustrates all or most of a software system at a high level but provides little if any details about the functionality or user interaction
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chauffered prototype
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a user interface prototype that is not used directly by a test user, but instead is used by a designer under the user’s direction
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use case
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an enumeration of the complete course of events that can take place in response to some user input; the case specifies all possible interactions between the user and the system
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operationalize
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to specify how a variable of interest will be manipulated or measured
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cooperative design
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a variant of user-centered design that emphasizes the direct involvement of users in analysis and design activities (also called participatory design)
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locus of control
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users' sense of how a dialog is being controlled, in particular by them or by the computer
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scenario
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a narrative or story that describes the activities of one or more persons, including information about goals, expectations, actions, and reactions
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user documentation
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stored training and help information provided to assist users in carrying out activities with a computer system
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knowledge management
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the activity of identifying, documenting, archiving, maintaining, and reusing the concepts and skills developed by the members of an organization
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user background survey
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a questionnaire (usually brief) completed by a usability test participant prior to interaction with a system or prototype (sometimes called a pre-test)
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interference (in memory)
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when information learned earlier causes difficulty in learning or errors in remembering new information
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field study
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a usability evaluation of an installed system carried out in a workplace context, often involving surveys or observational methods
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balloon help
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a technique for embedding documentation in the user interface; when balloon help is turned on, a small “balloon” containing descriptive information appears when the mouse pointer moves over a display object
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hierarchy
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an information structure in which a root concept is successively decomposed, such that every child concept is the descendent of one and one only parent concept
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WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer)
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the graphical user interface style popularized by the Xerox Star and the Apple Macintosh in the 1980’s
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summative evaluation
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usability analyses carried out at milestones during system development with the goal of assessing whether and how well a system has met its usability objectives
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social context
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the personal and organizational relationsihps among people in a situation, including their roles, and their knowledge of one another’s history, goals, and preferences
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GOMS analyis
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an analytic evaluation method that involves describing users’ goals, operators, methods, and selection rules for computer tasks
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human factors
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the study of variables that influence human performance in work contexts
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slip
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an error that occurs during action planning or execution when an appropriate system goal was selected
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human-computer interaction
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situations in which people understand and make requests of a software system, and the system interprets and responds to these requests
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external consistency
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the use of similar (or identical) interface actions and objects in a system for similar task actions and objects encountered in other systems or in the real world
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informed consent
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participants in usability studies must be informed in advance of the procedures and risks, and must feel free to withdraw from the study at any time
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action plan
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a sequence of actions selected to achieve a goal.
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newsgroup
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an online threaded discussion where people post positions, questions, comments, or answers
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within-subjects design
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a usability test structure in which the same subjects are exposed to different levels of an independent variable (also called repeated measures)
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wizard (help documentation)
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online assistance wherein a computer system recognizes that the user is attempting a specific task, and offers step-by-step guidance through the procedure
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data collection form
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a planning and observation form designed to guide the evaluators’ note-taking, time measurement, and so on, during a usability test
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symmetry
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a Gestalt perceptual principle stating that similar or identical objects seen on either side of a possible axis of rotation are more likely to be seen as a group
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interactive tutorial
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an online series of presentations and exercises designed to introduce and practice system concepts and skills
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Gestalt principles
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principles of human perception that emphasize wholistic relationships among visual features that identify objects and configurations
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top-down processing
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the impacts that a person’s expectations and the task context have on the perception, recognition, and interpretation of information
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training wheels
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an approach to user training that involves temporary deactivation (but not hiding) of functionality deemed unnecessary or inappropriate for use by novices
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iterative design
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a cyclical approach in which design ideas are prototyped and tested, with the results used to guide the next cycle of re-design
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pluralistic walkthrough
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a variant of a usability inspection where usability engineers, designers, and end users collaboratively step through and critique a user interface
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systematic documentation
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an approach to user documentation that analyzes knowledge about a system into hierarchies, and then systematically introduces and builds up component skills and concepts one-by-one
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layout appropriateness
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a design heuristic in which interface controls (e.g., a button in a dialog box) are laid out to optimize travel time for the most common usage cases
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augmented reality
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distributing computational power among objects in the real world; the new capability may be achieved by embedding input sensors or other processors, or by attaching information that is processed by external computational devices
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stakeholder profile
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a summary of the general characteristics of a stakeholder group, including their background, expectations, and technology preferences
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empirical evaluation
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usability evaluation based on collection of data from users working with an interactive system or prototype
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ethnography
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in-depth study of individuals and groups, their practices, and their artifacts, in the context of their normal work environment
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critical incident
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an event reported by a user as having a significant effect, either positive or negative, on task performance or satisfaction
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context-aware computing
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computer functionality and user interaction options that are selected and presented as a function of what is known about the use setting
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scenario machine
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a special-purpose user interface prototype that can be used to enact a user interaction scenario, in other words a single thread of execution given a starting state
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system goal
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a task-related goal expressed in terms of the objects and actions offered by a software system
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activities
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the collective ventures which provide context and meaning for people’s interactions with computers and other tools
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storefront testing
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a usability evaluation method in which a prototype of an interactive system is placed in a hallway or other public area so that people passing by can try out the system and provide feedback
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ubiquitous computing
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a term used to refer to the increasingly pervasive availability of computational processing in the world around us
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categorical variable
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user choices or other measures that can be classified and tabulated but not converted to a numeric value
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digital divide
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the gap in opportunities for education, jobs, and wealth, between those who have and use computers, and those who do not
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waterfall
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an approach to software development that organizes activities into a series of modular phases, beginning with the analysis of functional requirements, and continuing through software design, implementation, testing, and maintenance
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usability engineering
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an approach to software development in which target levels of system usability are specified in advance, and the system is engineered toward these measures
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claims analysis
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an analytic evaluation method involving the identification of scenario features that have significant positive and negative usability consequences
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macro
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a user-defined sequence of events that is stored, labeled, and subsequently executed as a single command
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debriefing
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a planned interaction after a user test, in which the test participant is allowed to ask and receive answer to questions about the system, tasks, or goals of the study
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internal consistency
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the use of similar (or identical) interface actions and objects within a system to represent similar task actions and objects.
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multimodal user interface
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user interaction that integrates multiple input and output channels, either in parallel or in sequence
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nonfunctional requirements
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qualities of a system under development that are not directly related to its function, for example maintainability or reliability
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walk-up-and-use system
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a computer system that requires no explicit user training; the functionality and user interaction procedures are designed to be self-evident and intuitive
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semantic directness
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the extent to which a user interface allows users to pursue their goals in a direct fashion
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random assignment
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test participants are allocated to test conditions on a random basis
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heuristic evaluation
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a user interface critiquing process carried out by experts with usability guidelines
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information model
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a set of concepts, relationships, and representations that are developed to help users make sense of large data sets and complex functionality
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squint test
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an assessment of a display’s “gestalt” made by squinting the eyes to blur the visual details of a display and allow the layout of major structures to stand out.
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confound
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a problem in experimental design in which two variables are correlated, making the interpretation of observed effects ambiguous
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chunk
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a structured collection of information that acts as a single unit with respect to storage and information processing capacity
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affective computing
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the study and design of user interfaces that explicitly engage and respond to people’s emotions or affective experiences
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storyboard
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a graphical event-by-event enactment of all or part of a scenario, developed to communicate or analyze a user interface design; the enactment may be at a high level (e.g., major screen changes) or at a detailed level (e.g., mouse selections), depending on the usability issue being explored
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social computing
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the study and design of user interfaces that explicitly engage and respond to people’s social expectations
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synchronous collaboration
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computer-mediated communication or shared work that takes place in real time (see asynchronous collaboration)
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continuity
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a Gestalt perceptual principle stating that objects positioned along a smooth curve are more likely to be seen as a group
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variability (of usability test data)
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the amount of diversity in a sample of data; high variability makes it more difficult to detect and interpret differences among test conditions
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hierarchical task analysis
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decomposition of a complex task into a structure of constituent subtasks, annotated with the logic needed to perform the subtasks at each level
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user-system conversation
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a scenario-based analysis technique in which user input is specified as one side of a conversation and the system’s interpretation, processing, and response to this input is specified on the other
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tooltips
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a method for embedding small snippets of documentation in a user interface; usually a brief statement of a display object’s name or function appears when the pointer rests over it
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semantic filtering
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a dynamic information visualization technique in which the semantic attributes of each data point are used to determine whether the element is visible, and where and how it is rendered if visible
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articulatory directness
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the extent to which the physical behaviors carried out with a user interface map to the goals and intentions of the user’s current task
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similarity
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a Gestalt perceptual principle stating that objects that look alike are more likely to be perceived as comprising a group
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property sheet
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a secondary window activated to present and manipulate the attributes of task objects or user interface controls
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participatory design
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a variant of user-centered design that emphasizes the direct involvement of users in analysis and design activities (also called cooperative design)
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minimalism
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an approach to instruction and documentation that emphasizes realistic tasks, minimal verbiage, thinking and improvization by the user, and the recognition and recovery from errors
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chord keyboard
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an input device in which alphanumeric information is entered by conjointly pressing groups of keys
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glyph
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a visual symbol or code that is attached to a physical object, to be recognized by a computer as task-relevant input
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tiled display
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a user interface style in which parallel tasks or subtasks are presented in separate windows that are sized and arranged to prevent overlapping (see also multiple coordinated views)
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knowledge work
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work involving significant expertise and intellectual decision-making
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veridicality (of virtual reality)
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the extent to which a simulated world matches the structures, information, and actions possible in the real world
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mode (of a user interface)
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a user interface state that provides a special context for interpretation of user input, including ignoring some input
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assistance policy
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a predetemined set of rules that usablility evaluators develop and apply to decide when and how to intervene during a usability test
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