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Definitions |
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Lateral magnification
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m = -s'/s
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Anisotropic
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opposite of isotropic, biorefringent materials are because of their microscopic structure... speed of light changes in these materials due to the direction and propagation of the light.
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Two-slit interference maxima
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dsinѲm = mλ
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Focal length
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r/2 for a spherical mirror
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Scattering
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The phenomenon of absorption and reradiation.
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Diffuse refraction
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Reflection from a rough surface.
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Specular refraction
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Reflection from a smooth surface.
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Vertical or y-axis
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Amplitude of the electric current
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Linearly polarized
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When the electric field remains parallel to a line perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
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Refraction
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The change in direction of the transmitted ray.
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Interference fringes
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alternating bright and dark bands caused by viewing a thin film of varying thickness with monochromatic light.
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Phosphorescent materials
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Materials that have very long-lived metastable states and emit light long after the original excitation
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Two-slit interference minima
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dsinѲm = (m - ½)λ
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Total resistance
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RT = R1 + R2 + R3
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Objective
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the lens nearest the object in a microscope
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Object
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The point at which the original object is placed in an optical device (P)
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Magnifying power of a microscope
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M = -(L*xnear point)/(fobjectie*feyepiece)
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Magnifying power of a lens
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M = xnear point¬/f
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Snell's Law or Law of Refraction
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n1sinѲ1 = n2sinѲ2
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Phasor
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a vector which rotates in the xy-plane with angular frequency ω
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Focal ray
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drawn through the focal point, it reflects parallel to the axis
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Diffraction grating
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tool used for measuring the wavelength of light which consists of a large number of equally spaced lines or slits on a flat surface.
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Tube length
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the distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the eyepiece in a microscope.
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Parallel ray
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drawn parallel to the axis; emerging ray is directed toward the second focal point of the lens
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Central diffraction medium
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in single-slit diffraction, the area where most of the light intensity is concentrated.
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Central ray
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drawn through the center (vertex) of the lens. Ray is undeflected.
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Fresnel diffraction pattern
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Diffraction pattern observed near an aperture or obstacle.
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Total resistance in a parallel circuit
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1/RT = 1/R1+ 1/R2
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Voltage Drop (IR drop)
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The amount of potential difference across a
resistor
This is the amount of voltage required to
push a specific amount of current across a
resistor
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Resonance absorption
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when an atom absorbs a photon and making the transition to the more excited state
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Stokes Raman scattering
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when the energy of the scattered photon hf' is less than that of the incident photon
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Simple magnifier
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what a converging lens becomes when it is placed next to the eye with an object closer to the lens than its focal length.
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Near point
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the closest point for which the lens of the eye can focus the image on the retina
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Order number
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m = 0, 1, 2... for two-slit interference maxima. m = 1, 2, 3... for two-slit interference minima.
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Image
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The point at which the image forms in optical devices (P')
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Anti-Stokes Raman scattering
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when the energy of the scattered photon is greater than that of the incident photon.
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Fermat's principle
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The path taken by light traveling from one point to another is such that the time of travel is a minimum. That is, light travels along the path of least time.
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First-order spectrum
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the spectral line corresponding to m = 1.
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Focal plane
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plane which intersects the axis of a lens at the focal point.
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Phase difference due to a path-length difference
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δ = (∆r/λ)*360°
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given 3 amperes and 90 volts what is the total power
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270 watts
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Photon
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A particle of light with Energy E = hf = (hc)/λ where h = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s = 4.136 x 10-15 eV-s
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Rayleigh's criterion for resolution
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when the critical angle of separation, αc = 1.22λ/D, separates two sources as seen through a circular aperture, the two sources will be seen as one source.
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Converging or positive lens
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a lens whose focal length is positive
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Coherence time
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the length of time it takes for a packet of light to pass a given point.
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Parallel Circuit is
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A circuit in which there are more than one path for the current to flow.
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Huygen's construction or Huygen's principle
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Each point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical secondary wavelets that advance at the wavespeed for the propagating medium. The primary wavefront at some later time is the envelope of these wavelets.
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Diverging or negative lens
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a lens whose focal length is negative (any that is thinner in the middle than at the top and bottom)
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Power of a lens
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the reciprocal of the focal length: P = 1/f
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in a Parallel Circuit
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A break in any one path does not interrupt the flow of charge in the other paths.
Each device operates independently of the other devices connected in the circuit.
Sum of the current through each circuit element is equal to total circuit current.
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R1 is 90 ohms and R2 is 45 ohms, what is the total resistance (R1 and R2) of the circuit of this parallel circuit?
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30 ohms
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Sign conventions for reflection
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s is positive when the object is on the incident-light side of the mirror. s' is positive if the image is on the reflected-light side of the mirror. r, and thus f, is positive if the mirror is concave so the center of curvature is on the reflected-light side of the mirror.
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Index of refraction
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n = c/v where v = speed of light in the medium.
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Principal rays for a thin lens
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the rays you need to draw to determine the location of the final image formed from a thin lens.
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Total Water
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60%
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Normal K
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3.5-5.0 mmol/l
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Normal albumin
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3.5-5.0 g/dl
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Normal Ca
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8.9-10.4 mg/dl
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ultrafiltration occurs across:
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glomerular capillaries
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V x [Urine]
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Excretion Rate
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Normal total protein
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6.0-8.0 gm/dl
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Renal; blood flow %
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25%
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Osmolarity of body fluids
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290 mOsm/L
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Osmolarity: 1 mosm/L =
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19.3 mmHg
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Renal Vasodilators (5)
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PGE2; PGI2(Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs inhibit synth of prostaglandins, interfering with the protective effects of prostaglandins on renal fxn following hemmorrhage); NO; Bradykinin; Dopamine(low dosage only)
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Filtration across the glomerular capillaries is...
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GFR
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region of glucose curve between threshold and Tm (250-350 mg/dl), represents excretion o fgluc in urine before saturation (Tm) is fully achieved
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splay
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Proximal tubule-non-specific cation carrier secretes ... (3)
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creatinine, catechols, morphine
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excretion rate - filtered load
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secretion rate
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Kidneys sythesize and secrete:
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renin, erythropoietin, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
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heart chambers
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Right atrium: receives oxygen-depleted blood from the body via the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava and pumps it through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.Right ventricle: receives oxygen-depleted blood from the right atrium and pumps it through the pulmonary valve into the lungs via the pulmonary artery.Left atrium: receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins and pumps it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.Left ventricle: receives oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium and pumps it through the aortic valve to the entire body via the aorta, including to the heart muscle itself through the coronary arteries.
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Volume depletion incr Na reabsorption, phosphate follows and phosphate ___ rises/falls.
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excretion; falls
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Condition with injury and inflammation to glomerulus and red cell in urine
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acute glomerulonephritis
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RBF=
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RPF/1-Hct, where 1-Hct is fraction of blood volume occupied by plasma
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Late distal tubule and collecting duct-alpha intercalated cell does ______.
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K+ reabsorption
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Henle's Loop-Thin ascending limb is _____ to water but ____ is reabsorbed passively
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impermeable; Na
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Henle's Loop-Thick ascending limb is only segment which actively reabsorbs _____ and the entire ascending limb is relatively _______ to water.
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solute; impermeable
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Aldosterone promotes the excretion of ___ which is related to the ___ retaining action.
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K+; Na+
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With Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH secretion, there is incr/decr ADH which leads to plasma vol___, plasma Na___.(psychogenic drinking would have the same darrow-yannet)
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incr, decr
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intercalated disk
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Intercalated discs (IDs) are complex adhering structures which connect single cardiac myocytes to an electrochemical syncytium---mainly responsible for force transmission during muscle contraction. Intercalated discs also support the rapid spread of action potentials and the synchronized contraction of the myocardium
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Urea reabsorption is by ______ _______ mechanism
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simple diffusion
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Normal RBF
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1200 ml/min or 20% of cardiac output
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% Body weight is ECF (Na+, Cl-, HCO3-)
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20%
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% Body weight is ICF (K+, Mg+, Protein-, Organic Phosphate-)
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40%
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Addison's disease is high/low aldosterone leading to ___ plasma vol, ___ Na, and ___ K. Hyperaldosteronism is the opposite of this.
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low; decr; decr; incr
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If we remove bicarb from the system, the pH will ___.
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decr
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other types of metabolic alkalosis include ___ and ___.
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bicarb ingestion; hyperaldosteronism
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metbolic alkalosis that responds to NaCl(saline treatment) includes ___ and ___ in which the volume depletion initiates a compensatory incr in Na reabsorption which is coupled to ___ reabsorption and H+ ion secretion.
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diuretics; vomiting; bicarb;
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ADH regulates ___ (not ___ excretion). Its primary mission is to ___ "free" water.
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water; fluid; retain
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Urea permeability is affected by ___ which causes it to be ___ in the medulla.
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ADH; trapped
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In distal nephron and collecting duct, ___ is reabsorbed and urine osmolarity finally becomes ___.
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water; 1200
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all urine production in excess of osmolar clearance is ___ clearance.
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free water
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Base excess is a value which describes how many mEq of___ must be given to a patient to return the ___ to normal.
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H+; pH
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___% of filtered K+ is reabsorbed before ___ which is where K+ ___ takes place.
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distal nephron; secretion
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Adding CO2 to the system tends to ___ the pH
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decr
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Filtration fraction = _______ and its normal value is ___ % and thus increases in filtration fraction produce an increase in _______ concentration.
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GFR/RPF; 20; protein
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inulin is filtered, but not reabsorbed or secreted by reanl tubules and its clearance measures...
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GFR(Glomerular Filtration Rate)
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tricuspid valve
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The tricuspid valve (also known as the right atrioventricular valve) is on the right side of the heart, between the right atrium and the right ventricle. The normal tricuspid valve usually has three leaflets and three papillary muscles. They are connected to the papillary muscles by the chordae tendineae, which lie in the right ventricle. Tricuspid valves may also occur with two or four leaflets, and the number may change during life
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In a person whose cardiac ouput is 5 l/min, the RBF is _____/min or _____/day.
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1.25; 1800
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Water reabsortion is _____ and it occurs by two methods: _____ and ______.
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passive; tight jxns; aquaporins
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Dilation of afferent arteriole or constriction of the efferent arterioles causes...
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increase in Pgc (glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure)
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In metabolic acidosis, bicarb must ___ and so, in most cases, anion gap incr/decr. Anion gap = __ - [___ + ___]
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Na - [HCO3 + Cl]
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Pi gc or Oncotic pressure in glomerular capillaries is determined by...
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protein concentration of glomerular capillary blood and it increases along the length of the capillary as fluid is filtered out
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Portion of blood filtered into Bowman's space is the ultrafiltrate which contains _____ and all of the ______, but not the _____ and ______.
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water, small solutes; protein, blood cells
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Late proximal tubule- _____ moves passively carrying with it _____ (3)
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Cl- ; Na, Ca, Mg, etc
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Renal Plasma Flow RPF=
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[U] PAH x (Urine flow rate)/[RA] PAH - [RV] PAH
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Endothelin
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paracrine vasoconstrictor
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k+ normal ecm
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4.2
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S-D
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40 (Pulse Pressure)
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Shape of current
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continuous loop
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What does pepsin digest?
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proteins
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Mercury (rotation)
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59 days (very slow)
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Field is parallel/perpendicular to equipotential surface.
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perpendicular
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Major refractive surface of eye?
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Cornea
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Eris
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biggest Kuiper Belt object; bigger than Pluto!!!
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____ light "bounces" off a surface
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reflected
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Mean arterial pressure
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diastloic pressure + 1/3PP
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Tonic receptor
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slowly adapting, detect steady stimulus
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endurance athletes typically have much higher resting cardiac output than non-athletes
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false
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O2 consumption is depressed post exercise while the body cools down and repays some of the metabolic demand of the exercise
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false
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age of solar system
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5 billion years old
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A polarizer does what to light?
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rotates it
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What is radioactivity?
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The spontaneous decay or disintegration of an unstable atom, usually accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation.
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Skin CO 430 mL/min
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9 % of total
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ETT
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excericise with EKG see where pt feels pain
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constipation
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describe the two sphincters of the rectum
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isometric contraction
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muscle held a constant lengthgenerates tension but does not contractamount of tension is a function of muscle fiber length
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Motoneuron pool
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group of motoneurons that innervates fibers within the same muscle
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adhesivè
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Coated with glue, paste, mastic, or other sticky substancê
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axis tilt
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23.5 degrees. is oriented to point directly to Polaris
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phase shift in resistor
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V and I change together
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As energy is withdrawn from a liquid, molecular motion diminishes until the molecules, on the average, are moving slowly enough so that the attractive forces between them are able to cause cohesion
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Freezing
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flow autoregulation
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maintain blood flow in face of changesin MAP. occurs by increasing BP, cause BF to increase but organ doest need it so constrict the arteriole to the organ
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what does the gallbladder do?
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stores and concentrates bile
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increase of H, leads to increase of Ca, stablizing Na channels, making them less excitable
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Ogliodendrocytes
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the diaphragm rises to dome shape when it contracts, causing exhalation
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false
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tropical year
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time from one spring equinox to the next = 365.36 mean solar years.
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Lens abberation
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when a thin lens blurs the image instead of focusing it
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Tell about temperature...
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Atoms in matter are in motion. Particles have kinetic energy. Random movements. Temperature is the average kinetic energy of particles in matter. Higher the kinectic energy, the higher the temperature.
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distinctive feature of cardiac aaction potential
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plateu phase exists between depolarization and repolarization causing a long action potential
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Major Components of the Circulatory system
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Heart: pump provides force
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Layers of retina (outside in)
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Pigment cell layerphotoreceptor layer (R and C)Outer nuclear layer (cell bodies of R and C)Outer plexiform layer (synapse of p-receptor and bipolar)Inner nuclear layer (cell bodies of bipolar)Inner plexiform layer (synapse of bipolar and ganglion)Ganglion cell layerOptic nerve layer
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asthma is primarily a problem with:a)pneumonia in the upper airwaysb)respiratory muscle weaknessc)small airway hyper-reactivityd)emphysemae)low hemoglobin concentrations in the blood
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c- small airway hyper-reactivity
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how much earlier to stars rise?
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4 minutes earlier every day
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__ is proportional to the number of field lines passing through a surface
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strength of field
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Second heart soundd
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dub is result of closing the aortic and pulmonic valves at the end of systole
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What is the buffering system in the small intestine?
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bicarbonate and mucus
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the QRS complex of the ECG represents atrial depolarization
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false - ventricle
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what causes slow filling phase of ventricle
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atrial pressure wquals ventricular pressure
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1) Autonomic NS-- SYMP: increases BP via increases in HR and SV PARA: Decreases BP via Decrease in HR
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2) Baroreceptor Reflexes: high stretch= high BP (brain takes motor action to lower BP) (pulse frequency determine BP
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What is hyperopia and what fixes it?
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Farsightnednes-- light focuses behind retina
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The second feature (the smallness of the ripples) was perplexing. On the one hand, we knew there had to be some non-uniformity. (Why?) But the near uniformity of the background had a puzzling implication: the universe seemed to be more uniform than it sho
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- problem that universe expanded rapidly and was too young for radiation to have reached equilibrium.
- Alan Guth said that the universe underwent a period of cosmic inflation.
-according to inflation an infinitesimal volume expanded at a fantastic rate to a huge volume.
-But happend so early in cosmic history that density was still high after the inflation period.
- then hubble expansion occured
- it resolves the temperature problem because at very early stage all material in the visible universe was much more closely packed than a simple backwards extrapolation of Hubble law. so equilibrium would be reached.
-inflationary period then spread the nearly uniform material over a large volume and then the Hubble expansion leaves us in a universe where the radiation from all regions has the same spectrum.
-On the very largest scales, many orders of magnitude larger than our entire observable universe, there could be significant temperature variations but started inside preinflationary volume which was in complete equilibrium
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PR interval
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measure of time from P to Q it is the prolongation of conduction of AP through the AV node
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1) cortex: highly vascularized, isotonic to plasma2) medulla: progressively hypertonic3) renal pelvis:hollow collecting tube for urine
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how much of the cardiac output goes through the kidneys?
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Describe blood through the GI system
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PU nutriets in GI and delivers them to the interstitial space.Metabolic waste products enter the blood from the interstidal space and are delivered by the blood to many organs for elimination from body
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m= viscosity of the fluid being pumped
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L= vessel length (comes with rapid weight change)
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What is the flocculent spiral form?
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A star (or a cluster of stars) forms, and the massive ones evolve quickly, exploding as supernovae. The blast wave compresses nearby gas, leading to more star formation.
In this way, a fairly broad region of star formation can happen in quick succession. The rotation of the galaxy stretches this out into one of many stubby disconnected spiral arms.
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What happens with blood O2 at the periphery?
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OXYGEN LEAVES THE BLOOD AND ENTERSTHE INTERSTITIAL SPAACE AND CARBON DIOXIDE LEAVES THE INTERSTIATIAL SPACE AND ENTERS THE BLOOD
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Diffence in CO between R and L heart
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no difference they are in series so the CO is equal on both sides
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