| Terms |
Definitions |
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INCONGRUENCE
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UYUMSUZLUK
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body work
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hypo
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Erikson Stage 2
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Autonomy
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Habituation
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Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
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Reuptake
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Removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft via transporters
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Attachment Theory
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secure, avoidant, resistant, disorganized
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Hippocampus
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Memory-processing center linked with the brain's emotional circuitry that's also vulnerable to stress-related damage.
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self-concept
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everything you know about yourself
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Depression
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Feelings of sadness, self-blame, sense of worthlessness, and absense of pleasure. May be accompanied by a change in sleep patterbs and appetite, motor symptoms, difficulty with concentration.
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unconscious
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contains thought, memories and desires well beyond the surface of conscious awareness but still exert great influence on behavior
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blindsight
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eye blindness all processes blocked but cortical blindness still has motion processing (V5)
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Perceptual Distortion
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Hallucinations are sensory perceptions that are not directly attributable to environmental stimuli. These are NOT pathognomonic - not specifically distinctive to this disorder.
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addiction
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Physical dependence on a substance, marked by tolerance, withdrawal symptoms during abstinence, or both.
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unidimensional scale
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all items are highly interrated
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Subliminal
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below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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Ashe's conformity
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• The line judgment study
• A group of people and the person had to conform and say the wrong answer or not conform say the right answer and be uncomfortable
• Public conformity – change in your overt behavior but you hold on to your original behaviors
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Fetus
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the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
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intelligence
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mental abilities that enable one to adapt to,shape, or select one's environmentbasically... ABILITY
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At birth a doe fawn weighs:
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5 pounds
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What’s the largest value that a positive correlation can have?
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1.0
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Up to ___% of schizophrenics commit suicide.
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11%
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Thesis Statement
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a one-sentence summary of the speech
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the use of others' emotional expressions to gain information or infer the meaning of otherwise ambiguous situations
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Social Referencing
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Donald Hebb
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observed differences in learning in rats raised in different environmentshow did the environment have an effect on brain development?Enriched Environment --> reinforce synapses used and prune rarely used synapses
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Binocular cues
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Stimuli suggestive of depth that involve simultanneous perceive by both eyes.
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Hypodermic model ignores knowledge of, interest in, and access to, media texts.
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Livingstone, (2005)
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Parasympathetic
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Located as a branch off of the Autonomic Nervous System, controls vegetative functions such as digestion (calming). Displays blood pressure decreases, heart rate decreases, digestion stimulated.
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Test 4Cognition
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Refers to all the mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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Treatments for Mental Retardation: Education
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Mainstreaming vs. Special SchoolingSpecial Schooling
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Miller's TOTE
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Test - check for congruity between one's present state and one's ideal state.
Operate - incongruity activates a plan of action sequence designed to remove the incongruity (attain idea state)
Test - Check for congruity between one's present state and ideal state. Was the plan effective?
Exit - leave the plan if congruity has been attained
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generalized anxiety disorder
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a psychological disorder that is characterized by a constant state of anxiety not linked to an identifiable source
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Bar Tending Study:
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-Beach 1993-Looked at how external mnemonics are used in occupations-Measured verbal mnemonic strategies and material mnemonic strategies
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Down syndrome
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Type of mental retardation caused by a chromosomal aberration (chromosome 21) and involving characteristic physical appearance.
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this system includes the fornix, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and septum
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The Limbic System
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this dsesign - good indv. change over time, but time consuming expensive and participants drop out
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longitudinal
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Imaginary audience
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Type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.
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surface structure
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the literal ordering of words in a sentence
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Test 5The cochlea
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the coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube of the inner ear through which sound waves trigger neural impulses.
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5. Newborns
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-temp greater than 75*, take a couple days but soon have a high body temp
-Nutrition is important for development
-sleep 18-20 hours for first year
-Can see but is blurry because lenses aren't fully developed
Slow accomidation- lens flexing and convergence- eyes moving together
-They can hear but takes longest to fully develop
-Can distinquish mothers sent from others
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First spoken language is about:
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100,000 to 50,000 years old
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What is effortless attention?
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An aspect of temperament involving voluntary control of on'es emotions and thoughts. Includes process such as inhibiting impulsues, controlling emotions, and focussion attention.
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the failure to learn how to respond appropriately in a situation because of previous exposures to uncontrollable events in the same or similar situations
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learned helplessness
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Evolutionary Psychology
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A branch of psychology that focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior.
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continuous variable
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- within the limits of the variable, any value is possible
- height, time to solve a problem
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freud: psychodynamic theory of personality
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an emphasis on conflicting forces (devil, angel) outside of conscious awareness
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SEI questionnaires show what kind of relationship to personality questionnaires?
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Substantial correlations (0.30--0.70) with several of the 5 major components of personality.
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Binding of the Neurtransmitters
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neurotransmitters are taken up by the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron at receptor sites
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What do Social Learning Theorists and Cognitive Theorists say about what should happen to prosocial behavior as one matures?
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Cooperating, sharing, volunteering and giving comfort should increase as one matures.
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Whether or not information is repersented pictorially in the mind
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What was Shepard's Mental Rotation study investigating
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Biodata (Life Record Data)
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Records of a person's life that are relevant to the trait in question. Ex. # of speeding tickets as an indicator of recklessness
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Review neural/chemical influences on aggression.
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Certain chemicals have been shown to influence aggression. Seratonin seem to have an inhibiting effect on impulsive aggression; studies have shown that violent criminals have especially low levels of naturally produced serotonin.
Too little serotonin leads to aggression – so does too much testosterone.
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Ancient past, symbols.
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What is the best way to satisfy the relatedness need?
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Psychology tells us what we already know from common sense, say some skeptics. Hindsight bias refers to our tendency to
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perceive events as obvious or inevitable after the fact
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T/F5-7 year olds understand having conflicting emotions about something.
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False, they are better able to understand having 2 similar emotions. At 8 years old are better able to understand contradictory emotions, eg being happy about going to a birthday party, but sad that a friend is not going.
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What are the 3 types of hostile aggression?
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1. Physical: Hitting
2. Verbal: Name calling
3. Relational: Social exclusion
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Hospice and palliative care involves interdisciplinary tesam, psychological and spiritual issues, 6month life expectancy - can only be delivered in patients home; true or false?
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can only be delivered in patients home is false
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What is Huntington's Chorea #2
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If # of repeats is over 40, the person will develop the disease Abnormal gene expression results in loss of neurotransmitter input to Basal Ganglia from cells containing GABA and ACH, allowing Dopamine to run wild Treatment: Xenazine reduces amount of dopamine activity.
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What was the purpose and result of the mirror in Kramer's sun-compass experiment?
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The sun was blocked from view and a mirror was used to change the apparent position of the sun. The birds reoriented according to the direction of the 'new sun'.
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Mnemonics
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Definition of displacement
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Temporal Lobe
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auditory processing
object recognition (prosopagnosia RH stroke)
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Intrapersonal communication
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communicating with yourself
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schemas
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abstract knowledge structures about particular objects or events
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researcher manipulatesone or more variablesto observe the effecton some behavioror mental process.
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experiment
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Geriatrics
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medical specialty devoted to aging.
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methadone
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-morphine like agonist
-used for morphine withdrawl other opiates
-ms agonsits
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depth perception
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ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally
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neurodegenerative disorders:(list 2)
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Parkinsons Disease and Huntingtons
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orderly sequence of biological growth processes
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maturation
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Group tests
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__________ ______multiple test takers with one administrator
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Dependency ratio
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ratio of self-sufficient, productive adults to dependents - elderly and children.
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The Fall of Behaviorism
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Linguistics Interested language and languagedevelopment Chomsky (1959)• Argues children do not only imitate• Children say things they have neverheard and things that are incorrect Not rewarded for this
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agonsits antagonists
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stimulates certain recptors and antagonizes others
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aptitude tests
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psychological tests that measure your ability to learn or acquire knowledge in a particular subject
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photo reception
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detection of light, perceived as sight
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posthypnotic suggestion
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saying something will happen after hypnosis
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Effects of Extrinsic Rewards depend on desire for ____.
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Control
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Shape constancy
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retains form despite changes in orientation
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what structures process smell/olfactory information
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olfactory nerveolfactory bulblateral olfactory tractmedial olfactory tractolfactory tuberclepyriform cortex
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slowly developing diseases with which people live for a long time
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chronic illnesses
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ENCODING
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- process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval
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classical conditioning approaches (theories of attraction)
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lott&lott: reinforcement approach, liking for a person under conditions in which individuals experience reward in the presence of that personaronson's gain-loss theory of attraction: increases and decreases of rewards/punishments influences liking more than a stable amoungaronson, willerman&floyd: pratt fall effect: we like competent ppl who blunderaronson & linder: we like ppl who dislike us then like us best
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Imprinting
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the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
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Stage 4
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Deepest, most difficult to awaken from. (Delta waves) Last part turns into REM.
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no
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Is it true that prey animals on average, sleep more than predator animals
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damage your ears
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amplitude greater than 130 deciamals can
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What else causes release of Substance-P?
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Capzasin/Capsaicin- ingredient: Oleoresin Capsicum (as Capsaicin)
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How is informational support defined in the family system?
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Advice or information
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operational definition
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Statement of the process we use tomeasure constructs
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experimental realism
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degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its patients
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supernatural model
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Explanation of human behavior and its dysfunction that attributes abnormal behavior to agents outside our control, such as demons, spirits, witches, devils, magnetic fields, phases of the moon and stars (lunacy), conflict between good and evil.
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serves as a link between between the hindbrain and midbrain
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pons
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in-group advantage
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we are better at recognizing facial expressions of emotion in people from our in-group
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Cannon-Bard theory
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theory of emotion proposing that an emotion is determined from simultaneously occurring physiological arousal, behavioral responses, and cognitive appraisal
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Acquisition or Encoding
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Stage of memory in which information is first encountered.
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Self Efficacy
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the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes
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What adds individual smell to each buck "rub"?
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the suborbital gland
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Incentive theory
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people are motivated to behave in ways that produce a valued inducement
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4 stages of NREM sleep
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1.Disengage from external world 2.Onset of true sleep 3.Physiological arousal drop to lowest point 4.Deep sleep. Stages then reverse to REM sleep.
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this part of brain had 3 major functions including motor control, speech production, and higher functions
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frontal lobes
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heuristic
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a rule of thumb that allows one to make quick but often erroneous judgments
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father substitute
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a male who replaces an absent father and becomes an object of attachment
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What is implicit memory?
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The influence of memory on performance without direct retrieval attempts or conscious awareness
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the 6 universal facial expressions
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1. surprise2. anger3. disgust4. fear5. joy6. sadness
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What is involved in cognitive therapy?
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Observing models, learning social skills, and restructuring how one thinks about himself and the world (e.g. not true to say that "everyone hates me").
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Reliability (Interrater and Test-Retest)
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degree to which results are consistent over timeInterrater Reliability -- do different raters who witness the same beh agree?Test-retest Reliability -- is performance the same if the same test is given again?
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Role of peer groups in motivation
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students can compare themselves with their peers on where they stand academically and socially....peers can help eachother learn material through discussion in small groups
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What are the three perceptual constancies?
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1. size constancy2. color constancy3. shape constancy
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What are the parts of the central nervous system?
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brain and spinal cord
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reinforcement after a given amount of time
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What is an interval reinforcement schedule like
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The Multiplier Effect of Reciprocal Causation
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Start off with very small instances (beginning of development) is has a butterfly effect, they amplify and they get larger. Explore more objects
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people in cold climates commonly eat...
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raw animal fat icelanders eat raw whale bubbler pickled in wheyinuit eat raw seal fat
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Who developed the 1st intelligence test?
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Alfred Binet in the early 1900's. his test measured the mental age of a child, theorizing that a child of 9 would have a mental age of 9 (on average). Those with lower mental ages would have a harder time in school, and the opposite for higher. This was later improved upon by Lewis Terman, who created the IQ scale.
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How is cognitive conceptualizations of incentive motivation like giving directions?
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You'd do it based on landmarks and not based on number of steps.
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What is a recency problem for the modal model? Give an example.
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Recency is found in long term memory tasks (e.g. president list)
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Skinner
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Important psychologist:
Behaviorism – focus on consequences of actions
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Moral Development
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Kohlberg's Theory
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Evaluation critieria:
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Mastery goal-absolute progressPerfoamnce goal-normative
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transduction
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process through which sensory receptors convert the sensory stimulationn into electrochemical neural empulses
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Myelin sheath
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Insulation----speeds up transmission in axon
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collection of upper-level brain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebral cortex
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forebrain
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True or False...Although itâs widely used, it is too subjective of a way to acquire knowledge.
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False
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circadian rhythm
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daily behavioral cycle or physiological cycle such as sleep/wake cycle. part of 24 hour cycle
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5. Labor
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Three stage process
Stage 1) Dialation and Effacement
Contractions cause dialation, or opening of cervix and effacement
Birth canal opens
Transition is when contractions are the strongest and cervix is comepletley open
Takes an average of 15-18 hours
Stage 2) Delivery of Baby
Mother pushes and baby comes out head first, crowning
Baby is still attached to umbilical chord, and its cut as soon as a quick assesment is taken
30 minutes to an hour
Modeling of head- head is made of thin plates that are easily squeezed during birth, reshape after
Remove fluid from face so baby can take its first breath
Stage 3) Birth of placenta
Minor pushing and contractions
10-30 minutes
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How does speaking develop?
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Spontaneous vocalization
Imitation and reinforcement of vocalizations
Shaping first words
Reinforcement for correct word use (vocab building)
Imitation and reinforcement of sequences of utterances (grammar)
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• Name some IQ tests:
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o Welscher tests, o Stanford-Binet,
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Watson
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Researcher who worked with "Little Albert".
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cooperation and interdependence
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stephen 1978aronson's jigsaw classroomactivity in class--child becomes expertgaertner 1990why does jigsaw workus vs them becomes weingroups with multiple identitieseliminates ingroup/outgroup thinkingBUT we develop stereotypes about groups with which we have had little or no contact
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neurotransmitter
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naturally occurring chem in nervous system that specializes in transmitting info between neurons
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The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
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Absolute threshold
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Fixed interval schedule
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Reinforces th first appropriate behavior after a fixed amoun of time has elapsed*ex. Slot mchine pays off the first time put in moey but only after a 10 minuete time interval
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Internal Personality
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Processes within an individual that explain why he or she behaves in characteristic ways
*attitudes, emotions, and ways of thinking
*fairly stable across time and situations
*partly inherited
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Equifinality
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Different Factors lead to a similar outcome
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multitrait-multimethod matrix
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table of correlation coefficients that enables us to simutaneously evaluate the convergent and discriminate validity of a construct
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validity
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degree to which a test actually measures what its supposed to measure
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course
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Pattern of development and change of a disorder over time.
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instilling good health habits and changing poor ones
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primary prevention
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Wilhelm Wundt
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Established the first scientific lab dedicated to the study of Psychology in 1879 (this marked its transition from a philosophy to a science). Also founded Structuralism.
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codeine
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one of he natural alkolods derrived from opium
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agoraphobia
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fear and avoidance of situations that may induce panic attack, and avoidance of those situations
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yes
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Is it true that information can affect our behavior even if we are not consciously aware of it
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performance based assessments
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doing activities that have no incorrect answer:::::dance, music, art and physical education
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Deception is justified when...
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-Study is extremely important
-No other method to conduct exp
-Deception would not have influenced individuals decision to participate
- Must inform participant after during the debriefing
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Empathy & sympathy: Hoffman: 5 stage development of empathy (what stage?)
Develop sense of self as distinct individual; help they give is usually in terms of what they would want
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Stage 3
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differential mortality
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certain people drop out due to peexisting conditions
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How to design a study
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1. Hypothesis:2. What kind of sample:3. What kind of study:4. Is it falsifiable and parsimonious?
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Familism
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the belief that family unity is more important than freedom and success.
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What is the humanist perspective?
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-people oriented toward growth-self-actualized-therapeutic end of psychology
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Systematic desensitization
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person is taught to relax, then gradually describe anxiety-provoking situation while remaining relaxed.
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counterbalancing
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- have each group of subjects get conditions in different orders to prevent order effects
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games, and pictures, and questions
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What does the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale use to test people
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hypothesis testing
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what we do when we evaluate the results of a study. a set of procedures that are used in evaluating results.
uses data from studies to systematically investigate research questions.
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By 1960, there were enough deer to have a __________
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hunting season
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constructs of disinterest
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things we would rather not measure (contamination)
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What was Esynck's contribution to the Type theory?
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Introverts vs. extroverts.
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What skills are positively correlated with altruism?
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Role taking skillsMoral reasoningEmpathetic reactions to others that are in troubleConsidering yourself altruistic
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Longitudinal study
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research in which the same people are restudied an retested over a long period of time
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What are the cells responsible for transduction?taste
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taste buds on tongue
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Dopamine theory vs. Clozapine
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Dopamine says that the dopamine system in schizo is to active and induces schizo sypmtoms. Clozapine is not a good antagonist but still works (contradicts)
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seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
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Mood disorder involving a cycling of episodes corresponding to the seasons of the year, typically with depression occurring during the winter.
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social sources of prejudice--belief congruence
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perception that others hold different beliefslook different=think differentyou will like an outgroup member who shares your believes for than an ingroup member with different beliefs
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What are the strategies used in behavioral treatment of MR? (4)
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1.)Positive Reinforcement (Reward) For Desired Behaviors2.)Negative Punishment (Punishment) For Undesirable Behaviors3.)Parent Training (A-B-C, Task Analysis, R+, P-)4.)Direct Reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)
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Connectionist model of word recognition
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depicts the lexicon as an interactive network of connections among different layers of processing.
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3 current trends in psych
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1.Increase of women and ethic groups in psy. 2.Development of Positive Psych. (positive values of optimism, joy,well-being,and psych.health->how promote longer and happier life)3.Industrial/Organizational Psych: how individual behavior is affected by work environment,co-workers, and organizational practices. Psy to a practical problem(industrial) and situational and social factors (organ.)
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Anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia
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A - unable to form new memories
R - unable to retrieve old memories
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FOOT IN THE DOOR PHENOMENON
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people will be more likely to comply with a large request after first agreeing to and completing a smaller one (called start-small-and-build-phenomenon refering to brainwashing tactics)
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What are Delusions of Persecution?
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A belief that others are conspiring or plotting against them (paranoid schizophrenia).
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What may keep a child from dropping out of school?
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Participation in at least one club/sport between the grades of 6th and 10th
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Illusion of control is associated with increased/decreased learned helplessness
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decreased - makes you feel like you have control of a situation, even when you might not
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women vs men- how likely to attempt suicide?
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women are 3x's more likely than men, but men are 4x's more likely to succeed
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Titchner
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Important psychologist:
ú
Student of Wundt
úFormalized theory of structuralism
úConsciousness can be broken down into component parts
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Mola
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Red, Yellow, Orange
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Definition of developmental psychology
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calming leading to homeostasis
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parasympathetic
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Hallucinogens-
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- Marijuana decreases logical thinking, slows reaction time
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Axon
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Transmits messages to terminal buttons
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branching neuron structures that receive neural impulses from other neurons and convey impulses toward the cell body
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dendrites
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people who seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of either sex
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bisexual
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depressants
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-psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity-alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opiates
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Lesbian
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woman who is sexually, emotionally, and psychologically attracted to women
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Emotional manipulation:
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intentionally stimulating emotions in others in order to achieve your goals
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• Acquisition
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process by which a conditioned response is established or strengthened
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Dreamwork transorms the true ______ content meaning into symbolic form that is less recognizable called _______ content
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LatentManifest
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frustration-aggression theory
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prejudice as displaced aggression caused by the frustration of life
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direct mixtures of different wavelengths of light in which all of the wavelengths reach the retina and are added together
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additive mixtures
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The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
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Dendrite
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Learned helplesness
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The phenomenon of learning throug expeirience tht outcomes are not controlable.
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Profound Mental Retardation
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1.)IQ: Below 20/252.)Some Motor Development May Be Present3.)May Respond To Training In Self care Skills
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Serotonin
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Plays a role in information and motor coordination
Inhibits children's tendency to explore their surroundings
Moderates and Regulates a number of critical behaviors, such as eating, sleeping , and expressing behavior
For: Regulatory Problems, such as eating and sleep disorders; OCD; Schizophrenia and mood disorders
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theory
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a set of interrelated hyptheses that is used to explain a phenomenon and make predictions about associations among constructs relevent to the phenomenon
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informed consent
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an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
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dementia praecox
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Latin term meaning “premature loss of mind,” an early label for what is now called schizophrenia, emphasizing the disorder’s frequent appearance during adolescence.
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learning that occurs by virtue of witnessing another person perform a behavior
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modeling
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Functionalism
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The school of psychology that attempts to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its component parts. Founded by William James.
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albert hofmann
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most widely known synthesit/ sidocerer of halluciongic compunds
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empiricism
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the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from sense experience.
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effects of bullying
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they can become depressed, lose interest in schoolwork, or even avoid going to school
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Ratio Measurements
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Estimation of the ratio between a magnitude of a continuous quantity and a unit magnitude of the same kind
Mass, length, time, plane angle, energy and electric charge are examples of physical measures that are ratio scales
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Research vs. Clinical Patients
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severity- community patients tend to be more severe
coercion- for children/adolescence clinic patients more coerced than research patients
homogeneity vs. heterogeneity- research sample more homogenous and clinic patients more heterogeneity w/age, gender etc.
focus- community more focused on specifics
site- research usually in lab, on campus etc, but clinician work can really be any where, any size etc.
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manipulation check
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obtaining a measure of the independent variable construct after manipulation
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Fovea
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A small center area of the Retina. Clearist and sharpist vision.
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Activities of Daily Life
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eating, bathing, toileting, walking, and dressing.
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Who is the father of modern experimental psychology?
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Wilhelm Wundt
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objective personality scale
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series of questions to self-report personality
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cluster sampling
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- entire population is divided into clusters and a random sample of the clusters is selected
- all units within the cluster are selected
- good for when you have a large population
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measurement validity
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extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
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Simple Learning
Classical Conditioning
Pavlovian Conditioning
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The process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli- a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response
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What bird is invloved in parasitic nesting?
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The Cuckoo Bird
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spurious association
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2 variables are related since they are both affected by a third variable
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What is Type A an example of?
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The type theory.
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positive manifold
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if you score well on one intelligence test, you score well on most
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Blind spot
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The area of the retina where axons from ganglion cells meet to form the optic nerve.
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variable ratio and variable interval
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What teo types of reinforcement schedules have the slowest extintion rate
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neurodegenerative disorders:Parkinsons Disease - MPTP-induced
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- 1982 – San Francisco - Designer Drug that was supposed to mimic heroin- Seven heroin addicts at ER. All showed signs of severe Parkinsons like Disease- Found that the drug had been contaminated with a toxin called MPTP
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standardized effect-size index
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puts results of all studies on same scale in order to combine/compare easily (in meta anaylsis)
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disease model of dependence
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View that drug dependence is caused by a physiological disorder. This implies the user is a blameless victim of an illness.
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WHEN DOES PARTURITION BEGIN?
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ABOUT 2 WKS BEFORE DELIVERY,WHEN THE BALANCE BET. PROGESTERONE AND ESTROGEN SHIFTS
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Bait and Switch technique
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it works by getting people to commit to a general course of action; then they accept a deal they would have dismissed if it had been offered first
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What does, 'associative learning' mean and what are the two types?
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-Learning that certain events occur together.
A. Type 1 - Two stimuli (classical conditioning)
B. Type 2 - Response and its consequences (operant conditioning)
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social exchange theory
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the idea that we help others when we understand that the benefits to ourselves are likely to outweigh the costs
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The birth of modern psy? (year and name)
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1879 - Wilhelm Wundt
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Schizophrenia Hx of the Dx Category & DSM-IV-TR - Bleuler
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Eugen Bleuler disagreed with Kraepelin. He didn't believe all or most cases developed at early age. The symptoms of schizophrenia were the result of disordered thought processes affectin the four As: autism (complete self-focus), associations (unconnected ideas), affect (inappropriate emotions), and ambivalence (uncertainty over actions). Argued it didn't always result in continued deterioration, and believed that dementia praecox represented a group of disorders that have different causes. Also thought that environmental factors with a genetic predisposition produced the disorder.
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What is the definition of Coping?
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Efforts to manage or master conditions of threat or demand that tax one's resources.
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What is the limbic area?
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Part of the brain that pays a large role in emotional reactions.
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Is there a difference between boys & girls in skeletal ossification at birth?
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- ossification: as the baby grows, minerals & other substances are added to the cartilage so that it hardens into bones & is less flexible- yes, on avg girls are more typically advanced in sk. ossif. than boys at birth - the sex difference tends to increase w/ age b/c female infants mature @ faster rate
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Dickens and Flynn discuss genes and interest
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It may seem that you don't need the genes to start an interest in playing, but it may later come into effect when the child starts to have his/her own interest.
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