Unformatted text preview: 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles
Stress Dynamics and Sources of Stress 1/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles Stress and the Brain
Stress has many de nitions, but according to Richard Lazarus, stress is a
state of anxiety produced when events and responsibilities exceed one’s
coping abilities. In this way, stress relies not only on environmental
factors, but on cognitive appraisals of these factors (Myers, 2004). The
cerebral cortex perceives the stressor, the hypothalamus stimulates the
pituitary gland to release epinephrine and norepinephrine. This in turn
stimulates the adrenal glands to release the hormone cortisol (Myers,
2004). Stress a ects many other areas of the body, such as the
amygdala, which produces a fear response. It seems to hardwire the
brain di erently. Middle-aged rats that had undergone early life stress
had abnormal brain-cell activity and memory loss (Brunson et. al., 2005).
The sources of stress are numerous: from catastrophes such as
Hurricane Katrina, signi cant life changes, poverty and inequality, to daily
hassles like tra c tie-ups and demanding jobs (Myer, 2004). Especially in
urban and overcrowded environments, psychologists see links between
everyday stressors and hypertension, and unhealthy behaviors such as
lack of sleep and alcoholism (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In fact, the
leading causes of death today in America are linked to lifestyle and
stress. According United Nations Security Council, about half of the
world’s children grow up in extremely stressful environments (poverty,
violence, war, abuse), which means that these children may have
impaired cognitive abilities later on in life.
According to research by Janet Rodin, the less perceived control of a
situation, the greater the stress. The elderly that lived in nursing homes,
were lonely, and had to be fed, dressed, and changed, felt signi cantly
more stress and had shorter lifespans than their independent, active
counterparts.
Females seem to be more susceptible to stress and depression. After
experiencing traumatic events, females are twice as likely as men to
develop Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, where humans develop
maladaptive behaviors such as avoidance, reduced responsiveness and
guilt (Myers, 2004). 2/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles However, mindful exercise, such as Tai Chi, meditation, and aerobic
exercise decrease stress response and promote overall well-being
(Sandlund and Norlander, 2000). In a University of Wisconsin study,
participants who did meditative exercises showed more electrical activity
in the left side of the frontal lobe, indicating that they had a lower anxiety
and a more positive emotional state (Davidson, 2003). Meditation, yoga,
and other relaxation exercises also assist in autonomic re exes. This is
called conscious control. Through these practices, it is possible to gain
control over the sphincter muscles in the anus and bladder. Yoga has
been shown to help control heart rate, blood pressure, and other
autonomic functions. These are learned behaviors—they involve the
formation of new pathways in the brain.
Researchers have also found the correlation between a social support
network of close friends and family and less physiological stress e ects
(Brown and Harris, 1978). Stress Inoculation Training and Hardiness
Training are cognitive behavioral techniques that work to improve stress
resistance through analyzing stressors, teaching coping techniques, and
changing behavior so that the patient feels more assertive and in control
(Kobasa, 1986). Drugs, such as beta-blockers, which reduce stress
arousal, anxiolytic drugs, such as minor tranquilizers, and anti-depressant
drugs, which treat severe anxiety, can also be used to combat stress. What are the most common causes of stress?
Stress happens when people feel like they don’t have the tools to
manage all of the demands in their lives. Stress can be short-term or
long-term. Missing the bus or arguing with your spouse or partner can
cause short-term stress. Money problems or trouble at work can cause
long-term stress. Even happy events, like having a baby or getting
married can cause stress. Some of the most common stressful life events
include:
Death of a spouse
Death of a close family member
Divorce
Losing your job 3/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles Major personal illness or injury
Marital separation
Marriage
Pregnancy
Retirement
Spending time in jail What are some common signs of stress?
Everyone responds to stress a little di erently. Your symptoms may be
di erent from someone else’s. Here are some of the signs to look for:
Not eating or eating too much
Feeling like you have no control
Needing to have too much control
Forgetfulness
Headaches
Lack of energy
Lack of focus
Trouble getting things done
Poor self-esteem
Short temper
Upset stomach
Back pain
General aches and pains
These symptoms may also be signs of depression or anxiety, which can
be caused by long-term stress. Do women react to stress di erently than men? 4/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles One recent survey found that women were more likely to experience
physical symptoms of stress than men. But we don’t have enough proof
to say that this applies to all women. We do know that women often cope
with stress in di erent ways than men. Women “tend and befriend,”
taking care of those closest to them, but also drawing support from
friends and family. Men are more likely to have the “ ght or ight”
response. They cope by “escaping” into a relaxing activity or other
distraction. Can stress a ect my health?
The body responds to stress by releasing stress hormones. These
hormones make blood pressure, heart rate, and blood sugar levels go
up. Long-term stress can help cause a variety of health problems,
including:
Mental health disorders, like depression and anxiety
Obesity
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Abnormal heart beats
Menstrual problems
Acne and other skin problems Does stress cause ulcers? NO
A bacterium called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a major cause of
peptic ulcers. Nonsteroidal anti-in ammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as
aspirin and ibuprofen, are another common cause. Rarely, cancerous or
noncancerous tumors in the stomach, duodenum, or pancreas cause
ulcers.
Peptic ulcers are NOT caused by stress or eating spicy food, but both
can make ulcer symptoms worse. Smoking and drinking alcohol also can
worsen ulcers and prevent healing. 5/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles What is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a type of anxiety disorder that
can occur after living through or seeing a dangerous event. It can also
occur after a sudden traumatic event. This can include:
Being a victim of or seeing violence
Being a victim of sexual or physical abuse or assault
The death or serious illness of a loved one
Fighting in a war
A severe car crash or a plane crash
Hurricanes, tornadoes, and res
You can start having PTSD symptoms right after the event. Or symptoms
can develop months or even years later. Symptoms may include:
Nightmares
Flashbacks, or feeling like the event is happening again
Staying away from places and things that remind you of what
happened
Being irritable, angry, or jumpy
Feeling strong guilt, depression, or worry
Trouble sleeping
Feeling numb
Having trouble remembering the event
Women are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop PTSD than men. Also,
people with ongoing stress in their lives are more likely to develop PTSD
after a dangerous event. Fight or Flight Response
When we experience excessive stress, either from internal worry or 6/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles external circumstance, a bodily reaction called the “ ght-or- ight”
response will be triggered. Harvard physiologist Walter Cannon originally
de ned it. The response system represents the genetic impulse to
protect ourselves from bodily harm, but also can result in negative health
e ects. According to Cannon’s theory, during stress-response processes,
the sympathetic nervous system increases the heart rate and releases
chemicals to prepare our body to either ght or ee. When the ght-oright response system get activated, it tends to perceive everything in
the environment as a potential threat to survival.
In modern life, we do not get the option of “ ight” very often. We have to
deal with those stressors all the time and nd a solution. When you need
to take an SAT test, there is no way for you to avoid it; sitting in the test
room for ve hours is the only choice. Lacking the “ ight” option in
stress-response process leads to higher stress levels in modern society. LEARNING ACTIVITY Watch Fight or Flight Response and take the ungraded quiz. Stress and Health
Exercise builds stronger bodies only if we push ourselves beyond our
regular level of strength and endurance. Progressing in your intellectual
skills occurs only by going beyond your adaptation level for the
complexity and amount of knowledge you must acquire. Stress as
“challenge” enhances physical and emotional well-being. Mountain
climbers want risk and challenge, but they want the type that they feel
they can master and mostly control. They don’t want to be perfectly in
control because then the challenge would not be so great. They want to
be on the edge between in-control and having to use every degree of
skill, concentration, and problem solving to succeed. The same is true of
race car drivers, downhill skiers, chess players, musicians, and artists.
These activities have been described by Csikszentmihalyi as inducing 7/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles the experience of “ ow” that totally captures the attention, makes it very
easy to continue, and very hard to stop. There are many other activities
and professions that produce “ ow,” but the essence of the experience is
to be on the edge of challenge and failure with the perception that your
own e orts will make the di erence between good and bad outcomes. In
these conditions stress builds healthier bodies and higher well-being.
People who experience “ ow” frequently report high degrees of
satisfaction in life. Stress is in the eye of the beholder
The process by which we in uence the emotion we experience in a
situation by the interpretation or cognitions we select in the experience
is described by Lazarus’s theory of appraisal as in uencing our stress
experience. This theory may be bene cial to our understanding of the
di erences between individual’s stress levels. The theory’s main points
are:
1. When we experience a situation or event we rst determine if it is a
threat, a challenge, or is neutral.
2. We then assess our inventory of resources to cope with the event.
If we do not perceive we are adequate to the task, we must be able
to withdraw or we will feel trapped in a situation with aversive consequences coming. That induces distress and all the physiological
processes that harm our health. If we perceive that we have the resources to successfully cope with the situation, we feel challenged
and optimistic. Note that challenge and optimism are related to enhanced health and sense of well-being.
This second stage of appraisal impacts the rst stage in a loop process. If
we at rst perceive a threat but then realize we can handle it, it reduces
the distress and may even create a perception of challenge. If at rst we
perceive a challenge but then realize that we don’t have what it takes to
be successful, we may begin to experience distress as we see the
aversive outcome of failure looming ahead. Depending on the meaning
of the outcome to us, the distress may be mild or severe. If the situation
is always hanging over us and we always feeling inadequate to it and 8/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles anxious about negative outcomes, we are always under distress. Our
health and well-being take a beating in that scenario.
Next we must select from our repertoire of coping resources. There are
two types of coping resources:
instrumental
palliative (emotion-focused)
Instrumental coping solves the problem and removes the stressor form
our experience as in working out a con ict with someone to reduce the
distress or by getting a better job to reduce nancial pressures.
Palliative coping alters our physiological reactions to stress that will not
go away and cannot be escaped. These include relaxation skills,
reinterpretation of the meaning or e ects of the stressor, acceptance of
the situation, or optimism about future improvements in the situation.
Palliative skills would include relaxing in the tra c jam even though you
have an important appointment that is being missed. You realize you
cannot do anything about it, so you may as well relax because anger and
tension will not make the cars move any faster, but it will hurt you, so you
choose to relax instead.
As we go to our repertoire of coping skills to select one or more, we may
become more optimistic of success and reappraise the situation in the
rst step. It may become less threatening and hence less distressful. We
could nd that our coping resources will be less adequate than we
initially thought and we would become more threatened now. Even a
challenge might be converted into a threat as in traveling to a another
country for the rst time and nding your credit cards are missing and
you have no money for anything and no way to get any.
This interactive appraisal and coping process is at the heart of the impact
of stress on us. If we interpret a situation as stressful, it has the stressrelated e ects on us. If we have few coping sources, more situations will
be perceived as distressing. If we have many coping resources, more
situations will be perceived as challenging or at least neutral. 9/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles As I am driving down the road and have a at tire, I could be annoyed at
the trouble it causes or highly threatened by the memory of Bill Cosby’s
son’s murder a few years ago as he changed his tire. If I don’t know how
to change a tire and it is night time, I may feel very threatened as I
perceive helplessness and vulnerability to someone’s attacking me. If I
assure myself that this is unlikely and I do know how to change a tire, I
may decide that I will get this done in ten minutes and be on the road
safely. But then I nd that my spare tire is at. Now I feel threatened for
sure. But if I have a good spare, have a good ashlight, have a handgun
and the skill to use it, and have changed many tires, I may only feel
annoyed at the hassle and not feel threatened (many instrumental skills).
I may have none of these things but have a cell phone and a close friend
who will quickly be here to solve the problem for me (social support). My
distress is much less then.
These factual situations are part of the appraisal and coping process.
Perception is also critically important. If I have little con dence in myself
to handle a at tire even though I have been taught how to do it and
have the tire, I may feel more threatened. If I have the cell phone but
don’t believe I should bother anybody to come here, or don’t believe
they would want to help me, the facts do not determine my reaction as
much as my perception of the facts determines it.
A second example of the role of coping skills and perception could
involve getting started in this course. If you are a computer whiz and
have taken several college courses including online courses before, you
got started with little problem. Learning to use Etudes, to take online
quizzes probably did not cause much distress. But if you were new to
using the Internet, had never taken an online course, and had low selfcon dence, you may have been quite distressed. Same situation,
di erent coping resources. Some of our community colleges go to great
e ort to be sure new online students have the knowledge and coping
skills to begin a course with little stress.
Now add pure perception. If you perceive college as a supportive
environment that will nd a way to assist you to get through as long as
you put forth the e ort, and perceive instructors as willing to be exible
when circumstances are beyond all of our control, like getting started on
the three programs we use and getting books late, you may be hassled 10/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles but not threatened about failing the course because of these factors. But
if you see colleges and instructors as money-hungry and deliberately
placing obstacles in your path to cause you to fail and drop out, you have
been very distressed when you had these di culties as you would see
no support or exibility to allow you to adapt to the new situation and
have the time to catch up. You might even feel quite angry at this new
ploy to get your tuition and frustrate you into quitting. The reality of the
college and instructor’s intent make no di erence in your initial
perception and resultant choices. It is your perception of reality that
determines what you will do.
The appraisal and coping process underlies the statement that “stress is
in the eye of the beholder.” Any event of situation may be perceived
di erently by di erent individuals due to past experience with it, learned
skills, personality traits like Type A and optimism, and the amount of
distress being experienced already. Social support may be instrumental
in helping cope with problem as in coming to help with the at tire, or
being eager to listen and be supportive with your sharing your
experiences. Both reduce the distress levels. LEARNING ACTIVITY Find out if life events are adding up to stress and illness in your
life.
Complete the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale (Social
Readjustment Rating Scale).
Did your score surprise you? What can you do about it? Show Sources Previous Next 11/12 9/30/2019 Dynamics and Sources of Stress | Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles 12/12 ...
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