Unformatted text preview: 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Boundless Psychology
Personality Trait Perspectives on Personality -… 1/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Allport’s, Cattell’s, and Eysenck’s Trait Theories of
Personality
Allport’s, Cattell’s, and Eysenck’s trait theories propose that individuals
possess certain personality traits that partially determine their behavior. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Summarize the similarities and di erences among Allport’s,
Cattell’s, and Eysenck’s trait theories of personality KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points Traits are characteristic ways of behaving, such as
extraversion–introversion: an individual may fall along
any point in the continuum, and where they fall
determines how they will respond in various contexts. -… 2/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Gordon Allport organized traits into a hierarchy of three
levels: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
Using a statistical process known as factor analysis,
Raymond Cattell generated sixteen dimensions of
human personality traits, known as the 16PF.
Eysenck’s theory of personality is based on three
dimensions: introversion vs. extroversion, neuroticism
vs. stability, and psychoticism vs. socialization.
Key Terms trait: An identifying characteristic, habit, or trend.
Factor analysis: A statistical method used to describe variability among observed correlated variables in terms
of one or more unobserved variables. Trait Theories of Personalities
Trait theorists believe personality can be understood by positing that all
people have certain traits, or characteristic ways of behaving. Do you
tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or
pessimistic? According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of
the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are prominent
aspects of personality that are exhibited in a wide range of important
social and personal contexts. In other words, individuals have certain
characteristics that partly determine their behavior; these traits are
trends in behavior or attitude that tend to be present regardless of the
situation.
An example of a trait is extraversion–introversion. Extraversion tends to
be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas
introversion is manifested in more reserved and solitary behavior. An
individual may fall along any point in the continuum, and the location
where the individual falls will determine how he or she responds to
various situations. -… 3/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Extraversion–Introversion: This image is an example of a personality trait.
At one end is extraversion (with a preference for more stimulating
environments), and at the other end is introversion (with a preference for
less stimulating environments). An individual may fall at any place on the
continuum. The idea of categorizing people by traits can be traced back as far as
Hippocrates; however more modern theories have come from Gordon
Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck. Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
Gordon Allport was one of the rst modern trait theorists. Allport and
Henry Odbert worked through two of the most comprehensive
dictionaries of the English language available and extracted around
18,000 personality-describing words. From this list they reduced the
number of words to approximately 4,500 personality-describing
adjectives which they considered to describe observable and relatively
permanent personality traits.
Allport organized these traits into a hierarchy of three levels:
Cardinal traits dominate and shape an individual’s behavior, such
as Ebenezer Scrooge’s greed or Mother Theresa’s altruism. They
stand at the top of the hierarchy and are collectively known as the
individual’s master control. They are considered to be an
individual’s ruling passions. Cardinal traits are powerful, but few
people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our
personalities are typically composed of multiple traits. -… 4/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Central traits come next in the hierarchy. These are general
characteristics found in varying degrees in every person (such as
loyalty, kindness, agreeableness, friendliness, sneakiness,
wildness, or grouchiness). They are the basic building blocks that
shape most of our behavior.
Secondary traits exist at the bottom of the hierarchy and are not
quite as obvious or consistent as central traits. They are plentiful
but are only present under speci c circumstances; they include
things like preferences and attitudes. These secondary traits
explain why a person may at times exhibit behaviors that seem
incongruent with their usual behaviors. For example, a friendly
person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another is not an
anxious person but always feels nervous speaking publicly.
Allport hypothesized that internal and external forces in uence an
individual’s behavior and personality, and he referred to these forces as
genotypes and phenotypes. Genotypes are internal forces that relate to
how a person retains information and uses it to interact with the world.
Phenotypes are external forces that relate to the way an individual
accepts his or her surroundings and how others in uence his or her
behavior. Raymond Cattell (1905–1998)
In an e ort to make Allport’s list of 4,500 traits more manageable,
Raymond Cattell took the list and removed all the synonyms, reducing
the number down to 171. However, saying that a trait is either present or
absent does not accurately re ect a person’s uniqueness, because
(according to trait theorists) all of our personalities are actually made up
of the same traits; we di er only in the degree to which each trait is
expressed.
Cattell believed it necessary to sample a wide range of variables to
capture a full understanding of personality. The rst type of data was life
data, which involves collecting information from an individual’s natural
everyday life behaviors. Experimental data involves measuring reactions
to standardized experimental situations, and questionnaire data involves -… 5/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology gathering responses based on introspection by an individual about his
or her own behavior and feelings. Using this data, Cattell performed
factor analysis to generated sixteen dimensions of human personality
traits: abstractedness, warmth, apprehension, emotional stability,
liveliness, openness to change, perfectionism, privateness, intelligence ,
rule consciousness , tension, sensitivity, social boldness, self-reliance,
vigilance, and dominance.
Based on these 16 factors, he developed a personality assessment
called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each
dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. For example,
your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you
are. If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold.
A high score on this index signi es you are supportive and comforting.
Despite cutting down signi cantly on Allport’s list of traits, Cattell’s 16PF
theory has still been criticized for being too broad. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997)
Hans Eysenck was a personality theorist who focused on temperament—
innate, genetically based personality di erences. He believed
personality is largely governed by biology, and he viewed people as
having two speci c personality dimensions: extroversion vs. introversion
and neuroticism vs. stability. After collaborating with his wife and fellow
personality theorist Sybil Eysenck, he added a third dimension to this
model: psychoticism vs. socialization.
According to their theory, people high on the trait of extroversion
are sociable and outgoing and readily connect with others,
whereas people high on the trait of introversion have a higher
need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their
interactions with others.
In the neuroticism/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism
tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic
nervous system and even with low stress, their bodies and
emotional state tend to go into a ight-or- ght reaction. In contrast,
people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate -… 6/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology their ight-or- ght reaction and are therefore considered more
emotionally stable.
In the psychoticism/socialization dimension, people who are high
on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold,
nonconformist, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile. People who are
high on socialization (often referred to as superego control) tend to
have high impulse control—they are more altruistic, empathetic,
cooperative, and conventional.
The major strength of Eysenck’s model is that he was one of the rst to
make his approach more quanti able; it was therefore perceived to be
more “legitimate”, as a common criticism of psychological theories is that
they are not empirically veri able. Eysenck proposed that extroversion
was caused by variability in cortical arousal, with introverts
characteristically having a higher level of activity in this area than
extroverts. He also hypothesized that neuroticism was determined by
individual di erences in the limbic system, the part of the human brain
involved in emotion, motivation, and emotional association with memory.
Unlike Allport’s and Cattell’s models, however, Eysenck’s has been
criticized for being too narrow. The Five-Factor Model
The ve-factor model organizes all personality traits along a continuum
of ve factors: openness, extraversion, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and neuroticism. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the ve-factor model
of personality KEY TAKEAWAYS -… 7/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Key Points Many psychologists believe that the number of human
personality traits can be reduced to ve factors, and
that all of the other traits t within these ve factors.
The ve factor personality traits show consistency in
interviews, self-descriptions, and observations, as well
as across a wide range of participants of di erent ages
and from di erent cultures.
The acronym OCEAN is often used to recall the ve
factors, and comes from Paul Costa’s and Robert
McCrae’s conceptualization: Openness to experience,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism .
Critics argue that the ve factor model is limited in
scope and is not theory -driven; they also point to
limitations in its use of factor analysis.
Key Terms trait: An identifying characteristic, habit, or trend.
neuroticism: A personality trait manifested by characteristics of anxiety, moodiness, worry, envy, and
jealousy. Many psychologists believe that the total number of personality traits
can be reduced to ve factors, with all other personality traits tting
within these ve factors. According to this model, a factor is a larger
category that encompasses many smaller personality traits. The ve
factor model was reached independently by several di erent
psychologists over a number of years. History and Overview
Investigation into the ve factor model started in 1949 when D.W. Fiske
was unable to nd support for Cattell’s expansive 16 factors of -… 8/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology personality, but instead found support for only ve factors. Research
increased in the 1980s and 1990s, o ering increasing support for the ve
factor model. The ve factor personality traits show consistency in
interviews, self-descriptions, and observations, as well as across a wide
range of participants of di erent ages and from di erent cultures. It is
the most widely accepted structure among trait theorists and in
personality psychology today, and the most accurate approximation of
the basic trait dimensions (Funder, 2001).
Because this model was developed independently by di erent theorists,
the names of each of the ve factors—and what each factor measures—
di er according to which theorist is referencing it. Paul Costa’s and
Robert McCrae’s version, however, is the most well-known today and the
one called to mind by most psychologists when discussing the ve factor
model. The acronym OCEAN is often used to recall Costa’s and
McCrae’s ve factors, or the Big Five personality traits: Openness to
Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism. The Big Five Personality Traits
Openness to Experience (inventive/curious vs.
consistent/cautious)
This trait includes appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual
ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Openness re ects a person’s
degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity, and preference for novelty and
variety. It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative
or independent; it describes a personal preference for a variety of
activities over a strict routine. Those who score high in openness to
experience prefer novelty, while those who score low prefer routine. Conscientiousness (e cient/organized vs. easygoing/careless)
This trait refers to one’s tendency toward self-discipline, dutifulness,
competence, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (such as goaldirected behavior). It is distinct from the moral implications of “having a -… 9/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology conscience”; instead, this trait focuses on the amount of deliberate
intention and thought a person puts into his or her behavior. Individuals
high in conscientiousness prefer planned rather than spontaneous
behavior and are often organized, hardworking, and dependable.
Individuals who score low in conscientiousness take a more relaxed
approach, are spontaneous, and may be disorganized. Numerous
studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness
and academic success. Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved)
An individual who scores high on extraversion is characterized by high
energy, positive emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness, sociability, and
the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others. Those who
score low on extraversion prefer solitude and/or smaller groups, enjoy
quiet, prefer activities alone, and avoid large social situations. Not
surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness
are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their
curious and excitement-seeking nature (Tok, 2011). Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind)
This trait measures one’s tendency to be compassionate and
cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. It is
also a measure of a person’s trusting and helpful nature and whether
that person is generally well-tempered or not. People who score low on
agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative. Neuroticism
(sensitive/nervous vs.
secure/con dent)
High neuroticism is characterized
by the tendency to experience
unpleasant emotions, such as
anger, anxiety, depression, or
vulnerability. Neuroticism also
refers to an individual’s degree of
emotional stability and impulse Agreeableness across the United … 10/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology control. People high in
neuroticism tend to experience
emotional instability and are
characterized as angry, impulsive,
and hostile. Watson and Clark
(1984) found that people
reporting high levels of States: Some researchers are
interested in examining the way in
which traits are distributed within a
population. This image shows a
general measure of how individuals
in each state fall along the ve
factor trait of agreeableness. The
Western states tend to measure
high in agreeableness. neuroticism also tend to report
feeling anxious and unhappy. In contrast, people who score low in
neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.
It is important to keep in mind
that each of the ve factors
represents a range of possible
personality types. For example,
an individual is typically
somewhere in between the two
extremes of “extraverted” and
“introverted”, and not necessarily
completely de ned as one or the
other. Most people lie
somewhere in between the two
polar ends of each dimension. It’s
The Big Five Personality Traits: In
the ve factor model, each person
has
ve
traits
(Openness,
Conscientiousness,
Extroversion,
Agreeableness, Neuroticism) which
are scored on a continuum from
high to low. In the center column,
notice that the rst letter of each
trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN. also important to note that the
Big Five traits are relatively stable
over our lifespan, but there is
some tendency for the traits to
increase or decrease slightly. For
example, researchers have found
that conscientiousness increases
through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal
relationships and careers (Donnellan & Lucas, 2008). Agreeableness
also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years (Terracciano,
McCrae, Brant, & Costa, 2005). Neuroticism and extroversion tend to
decline slightly with age (Donnellan & Lucas; Terracciano et al.). Criticisms of the Five Factor Model … 11/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology Critics of the trait approach argue that the patterns of variability over
di erent situations are crucial to determining personality—that averaging
over such situations to nd an overarching “trait” masks critical
di erences among individuals.
Critics of the ve-factor model in particular argue that the model has
limitations as an explanatory or predictive theory and that it does not
explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented
from the model because they feel it neglects other domains of
personality, such as religiosity, manipulativeness/machiavellianism,
honesty, sexiness/seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness,
masculinity/femininity, snobbishness/egotism, sense of humor, and risktaking/thrill-seeking.
Factor analysis, the statistical method used to identify the dimensional
structure of observed variables, lacks a universally recognized basis for
choosing among solutions with di erent numbers of factors. A ve-factor
solution depends, on some degree, on the interpretation of the analyst.
A larger number of factors may, in fact, underlie these ve factors; this
has led to disputes about the “true” number of factors. Proponents of the
ve-factor model have responded that although other solutions may be
viable in a single dataset, only the ve-factor structure consistently
replicates across di erent studies.
Another frequent criticism is that the ve-factor model is not based on
any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical nding that certain
descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. This means that while
these ve factors do exist, the underlying causes behind them are
unknown. General Strengths and Limitations of Trait
Perspectives
While trait theories are useful in categorizing behavior, they have been
criticized by a number of psychologists. … 12/17 1/29/2021 Trait Perspectives on Personality | Boundless Psychology LEARNING OBJECTIVES Evaluate the strengths and limitations of trait theories of
personality KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points The strengths of trait theories lie in their ability to
categorize observable behaviors and their use of
objective criteria.
While developing their theories independently of each
other, several di erent trait theorists have often arrived
at a similar set of traits using factor analysis.
Critics argue that traits do a poor job of predicting
behavior in every situation. A counter to this argument
is that trait theories provide a strong correlation for
aggregate behaviors.
Another limitation of trait theories is that they require
personal observations or subjective self-reports ...
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