Unformatted text preview: MYTHOLOGY 101
FROM GODS AND GODDESSES TO
MONSTERS AND MORTALS, YOUR GUIDE
TO ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY KATHLEEN SEARS Avon, Massachusetts Contents
INTRODUCTION
DEFINING A MYTH
THE GREEK STORYTELLERS
ROMAN MYTHMAKERS
CHAOS, PROMETHEUS, AND THE BIRTH OF MAN
THE ORDERED UNIVERSE: SUN, MOON, AND DAWN
PANDORA’S BOX
GAIA (EARTH) AND PONTUS
CYCLOPES AND THE HUNDRED-HANDED ONES
MYTHS IN LITERATURE
THE TITANS AND TITANESSES
THE GIANTS
TYPHON
CRONUS AND THE BIRTH OF ZEUS
ZEUS VERSUS CRONUS: THE BATTLE WITH THE TITANS
MOUNT OLYMPUS AND MYTHOLOGICAL LAWS
THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN GODS
ZEUS AND HERA POSEIDON
HADES
A MAP OF THE UNDERWORLD
MYTHS IN ART AND MUSIC
ZEUS’S MANY AFFAIRS
ESCAPING DEATH: MORTALS WHO TRAVELED TO THE
UNDERWORLD
HESTIA
DEMETER
ATHENA
THE JUDGES OF THE DEAD
APOLLO
DIONYSUS
ARES
ARTEMIS
APHRODITE
STILL A MYSTERY: THE ELEUSINIAN RITES
HEPHAESTUS
HERMES
SIX WIVES FOR ZEUS
THE WRATH OF HERA
MUSES, NYMPHS, SATYRS, AND CHARITES
TRITON, HECATE, AND PAN
OTHER LESSER GODS MYTHS IN MOVIES AND POPULAR CULTURE
SCYLLA
AMAZONS
MINOTAUR
CHIMERA
MEDUSA
CENTAURS
MORE MONSTERS: GRIFFINS, ERINYES, HARPIES, AND THE
HYDRA OF LERNA
SPHINX
WHAT MAKES A HERO?
THE TWELVE LABORS OF HERACLES
ANCIENT FEUDS: ATHENA VERSUS ARES
PERSEUS
Theseus
JASON
ODYSSEUS
ACHILLES, AGAMEMNON, AND OTHER IMPORTANT HEROES
THE ORIGINS OF THE TROJAN WAR
HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR
THE FALL OF TROY
COMPARING GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGIES
AENEAS: THE TROJAN HERO
ROMULUS, REMUS, AND THE CREATION OF ROME THE ROMAN KINGS
MODERN-DAY MYTHOLOGY
APPENDIX A: FAMILY TREE OF THE GREEK GODS
APPENDIX B: FAMILY TREE OF THE ROMAN GODS
INSERT IMAGES
COPYRIGHT INTRODUCTION
Many years have passed since the Greeks and Romans
worshiped the gods and goddesses of Mount Olympus—
centuries, in fact. The ancient characters you may have heard of
before, like mighty Zeus, monstrous Medusa, and seductive
Aphrodite, originate from myths dating back to 900 B.C. So why
study mythology today? In short, classical mythology has
impacted history, literature, culture, and life across the Western
world and beyond; truly, it has shaped the ancient world and
the modern world, and continues to impact contemporary life
today. For example, the language you speak has been impacted
by classical mythology: Conceited people are narcissists; your
enemy’s weakness is his Achilles heel; you may have experienced
a dreamlike state of hypnosis; and you’ve used an atlas to gaze
at the world. The months of the year trace their names to
Roman mythology; the constellations have their origins in myth,
too. Some of the world’s most famous writers and philosophers
detailed the quarrels of the gods and the lives of men, including
Homer, Sophocles, Virgil, and Ovid. This list may be impressive,
but it merely scratches the surface of what classical mythology
has to offer. The ancient Greeks and Romans used myths to explain the
wonders of the world, including the rise of humanity, the causes
of natural phenomena, and the origin of the Earth and the
universe. Myths not only shared stories of creation—they wove
narratives of love, betrayal, war, lust, jealousy, loyalty, and
tragedy across many centuries, told through tales of mighty
gods, noble heroes, and terrifying monsters. And the myths
aren’t limited to the tales of gods of men alone. You’ll discover
some of the most creative beings ever recorded in history,
including the aggressive Centaurs, half man and half horse; the
irresistible Sirens, luring wayward sailors to their deaths; and
the original monsters, like the Minotaur, the Sphinx, the
Chimera, and the Cyclopes. You will also find the stories behind
some of history’s most famous adventures and battles, including
the Trojan War, Odysseus’s epic journey, and Oedipus’s tragic
life story. Plus, you’ll meet the most popular gods and goddesses
in Greek mythology (and their Roman counterparts), including
war-loving Ares, wise Athena, jealous Hera, elusive Hades,
furious Poseidon, and their heroic mortal counterparts, like
Jason, Perseus, Heracles, and Theseus.
Mythology 101 will guide you through the most glorious (and
completely terrifying) tales the ancient world had to offer. And
don’t worry; we’ve highlighted the Greek and Roman myths
with their own icons,
and , so you’ll know the exact origins
of every account. In addition, you’ll find family trees for the
Greek and Roman gods, so you can easily remember the “who’s
who” of the ancient world. No matter what type of story you
enjoy most—romance, adventure, mystery, horror—these ancient legends will have something for all your interests.
Whether you’re new to the gods and want to learn more about
their stories, supplementing a literature or history course, or
brushing up on what you learned in high school, this fun and
comprehensive guide to gods is the perfect introduction to
Greek and Roman mythology. DEFINING A MYTH
Adventures of Passion, Tragedy, War, and Heroism A myth, defined simply, is a fictitious story or half-truth, but it goes
much deeper than that. Scholars of mythology have struggled to
pinpoint an exact definition that encompasses all of the attributes
contained within a myth. It’s funny how such a small word both
defines and gives purpose to lofty ideas, such as the meaning of life.
It’s no wonder an accurate definition has not been settled on!
In popular usage, the word myth usually refers to a fictitious story
or a half-truth. For example, you might see a report in the media that
uses myth for some commonly held belief that the reporter wants to
prove is untrue. But myths go much deeper than false beliefs or
made-up stories. Scholars of mythology have struggled to agree on
an exact definition, one that encompasses everything myth can
mean. Myths may deal with questions of origins—who you are and
where you came from. They may teach values or attempt to explain
natural phenomena. Myths are often intertwined with religion, and
some look ahead to the end of time.
This book focuses on Greek and Roman mythology, but these are
not the only myths. Other cultures—such as Japanese, Native
American, Indian, Chinese, Norse, African, Celtic, Aboriginal, and Egyptian peoples—have their own myths. Although the stories may
be wildly different, all myths share certain characteristics. Looking at
these similarities offers a starting point for developing a working
definition of myth. CREATING MYTHS, EXPLAINING PHENOMENA
The myth has several characteristics that set it apart from other
kinds of stories. One characteristic is how a myth is created. Unlike
most works of fiction, myths are not the creation of a single author. A
myth evolves as it’s told, over and over again. Scholars explain that
the mythology of a culture is created through the oral renderings of
its people. Someone tells a story, and then the audience tells it again,
and their listeners tell it again—and on it goes. Because myths are
told and retold, passed from one person to the next, there is often
more than one version of the same story.
A myth is a religious story that involves a higher power or entity.
The gods, goddesses, and other supernatural beings who appear in
myths are worshiped or revered. Within the culture that created it,
the myth is considered sacred and believed to be true.
A myth may attempt to explain the unknown, such as how the
universe or Earth was created. It also attempts to answer the broad,
fundamental questions all people ask themselves about the meaning
and purpose of human existence.
Any individual myth is part of a larger mythology, a group of
stories that belong to one culture. The myths that make up a
mythology may be tied together by shared characters (such as the
gods and goddesses involved), historical events (such as the Trojan
War), or common themes (such as love and sex). A culture’s
mythology contains socially accepted truths that provide a sense of
identity, shared values, and purpose. These characteristics comprise the essential elements of a myth. In
addition, a few other elements—not necessarily essential to all myths
—may appear. For example, many myths highlight activities that
break the laws of nature: People change into inanimate objects, the
dead rise and live again, and so forth. Also, myths often convey
different planes of existence and the interaction between them—
heaven and hell, for example, or the future and the past. ANCIENT QUESTIONS
The ancients, just like us, hungered for knowledge. Most wanted
explanations for what they considered to be phenomena they
encountered in their daily lives. Others went beyond that and wanted
reasons for the structure of the universe. Regardless of the
importance or size of the question, a curiosity drove them to begin
asking questions. And myths were formed to provide explanation for
these otherwise unanswerable questions.
Myths not only take on the challenge of tackling these colossal
questions, but also venture to answer the more everyday wonderings,
including:
The origin of certain constellations
Why the sun disappears at night
Why certain creatures behave the way they do (for instance, why
the spider weaves a web)
How the evils—sickness, death, grief—were released upon the
world
How fire came to man
The changing of the seasons
The Greeks and Romans answered these questions through myths.
This explanatory element of the myth is quite important to its
structure. Just like any other religion, classical mythology sought to
provide definitive answers to these ever-looming questions. A STORY FOR EVERY READER
If you enjoy stories of war and bravery in battle, you’ll be glad to
know that classical mythology is full of exciting battle scenes. The
ancients were fierce warriors, and the myths describe their fights in
great detail. The story of the Trojan War, for example, contains many
graphic descriptions of fighting.
Horror fans will find a fascinating variety of monsters in classical
mythology—including some you never dreamed might be lurking
under your bed. From Typhon, who had a hundred serpentine heads,
to the Minotaur, who ate children, the monsters of classical
mythology will give you chills and might even keep you up at night.
Adventure, tragedy, battles, and monsters are just the beginning.
You’ll also encounter tales of witchcraft and revenge, murder and
mystery, crime and punishment, and passionate love and seduction.
Love and sex play a major role in mythology, including stories of
scandalous affairs—such as the one between Aphrodite and Ares—
and stories of true love—such as the myth of Perseus and
Andromeda.
With such a wide variety of tales to choose from, classical
mythology is guaranteed to have something for everyone! THE GREEK STORYTELLERS
A Blind Bard, an Epic Performer, and Other Ancient
Authors Mythology doesn’t come from a single source. Myths develop as
they’re told and retold, passed from one storyteller to another, from
one generation to the next. This section surveys some of the most
important mythmakers of ancient Greece. These poets, dramatists,
and other storytellers were the best-selling authors of their time.
Because their works were popular and valued, they were recorded
and preserved. HOMER: THE GREATEST POET OF THE
ANCIENT WORLD
You will never study classical mythology without hearing the name of
Homer. Homer is regarded as not only the greatest poet of the
ancient world, but also one of the greatest—and certainly one of the
most influential—artists of the literary world. But did Homer truly
exist? This question has been debated among scholars, historians,
and the common man alike for centuries. What is not argued,
though, is the prominence of the Iliad and the Odyssey, literary
tomes attributed to Homer.
Several theories assert that Homer wasn’t the single author of all
the works attributed to him. Some scholars even doubt that he
existed at all. One theory posits that several different people
composed these poems, and the result was later attributed to Homer.
Other theories suggest that Homer composed the first part of the
Odyssey and that one or more other bards concluded the poem. Ancient Entertainment
Homer’s epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, each run
approximately 12,000 lines. To perform either poem in its
entirety would take several evenings. To the ancients,
listening to an epic poem was an exciting way to spend an
evening. These two poems tell of the Trojan War and its
aftermath. The Greek victory over Troy was a defining
moment for the Greeks and the catalyst for the foundation of Rome. These epics became an integral part of Greek
culture. In fact, the Greeks were said to have introduced
the study of these works into their schools around 400 B.C. Why is there this skepticism? The works of Homer have been
studied for centuries. Scholars who have compared the Iliad, the
Odyssey, and other poems attributed to Homer have found
significant differences. Others note that Homeric works blend
different dialects, even though people typically speak only one
dialect. Although the differences among Homeric works raise
questions about who composed them, “Homer” still created the
foundation for classical mythology—whether he was a single man or
several different authors. HESIOD: SHROUDED IN MYSTERY
Hesiod is another important Greek poet. Often called the father of
Greek didactic poetry, Hesiod probably lived some time after Homer.
Unlike Homer’s epic poetry, which typically narrates heroic deeds
and important events, didactic poetry tells a story to teach a moral
lesson.
Like Homer, Hesiod is mysterious, but scholars do know a bit
more about his life. The best guess is that he lived sometime around
700 B.C. in the village of Ascra in central Greece. According to his
poems, he tended sheep in his youth, becoming a farmer after his
father died. Although he was poor, Hesiod wasn’t a typical peasant.
Yet his works clearly show the perspective of a farmer who lived a
difficult life.
While tending his flock one day, the young Hesiod was visited by
the Muses, goddesses of literature and the arts. They appeared to
him in a mist and gave him a poet’s staff and a poet’s voice. Then
they told him to use these gifts to spread the word about the gods.
Hesiod did as he was told, even competing in poetry contests. The
results of this mystical visitation were the famous works Theogony
and Works and Days, as well as several lesser-known poems.
As with Homer, scholars debate whether Hesiod was the sole
author of his works. But there is general agreement that Hesiod was
an actual person and that he authored most of Theogony and Works
and Days. Only parts of these works are suspected of having been
added later by other poets. Theogony fulfilled the Muses’ command by telling the history of
the gods. Beginning with creation, this poem provides a foundation
on which to build the stories of the gods and goddesses. Theogony
explains the origin of the universe, the gods, and the world. Works
and Days, a poem of about 800 lines, is framed as a disagreement
between Hesiod and his brother, Perses, over their late father’s
estate. Works and Days is filled with fables and myths as the two
brothers debate the issue. AESCHYLUS: SOLDIER, PERFORMER,
PLAYWRIGHT
The next important period for mythology was the fifth century B.C.,
when Greece experienced a flowering of the theater. During this
period, three Greek playwrights rose to fame for their tragic plays.
The first of these tragedians was Aeschylus, who wrote more than
ninety plays and is sometimes called the father of tragedy.
Historians know several facts about Aeschylus. He was born into
an aristocratic family near Athens around 525 B.C., served as a
soldier in the Persian Wars, and became a celebrated tragedian. He
participated numerous times in the Great Dionysia, part of a festival
honoring Dionysus, the Greek god of wine. Competition at the Great Dionysia
For this festival, three dramatists each created three
tragedies and a satyr play (a short play featuring
drunkenness, sexuality, and practical jokes), which were
performed and judged at the celebration. His first
competition is thought to have taken place around 499 B.C.,
with his first victory in 484B.C. From then on, Aeschylus won
first prize in nearly every competition (although he was
bested once by his protégé Sophocles). Aeschylus is thought to have written ninety plays during his
lifetime, approximately eighty of which are known from the bits and
pieces that have survived. However, only seven of his plays, all
tragedies, remain intact today: The Persians, Seven Against Thebes,
The Suppliants, Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, The Eumenides
(the latter three make up the famous trilogy the Oresteia), and
Prometheus Bound.
A major theme of these tragedies is justice. Aeschylus believed that
the gods and goddesses sometimes resented mortals’ attempts to
attain greatness, which they saw as hubris (excessive pride). The
deities often pursued justice by tricking a person into causing his
own downfall through pride. The unjust were not always punished
directly; sometimes, punishment fell upon a culprit’s descendants.
Aeschylus died around 455 B.C. in Gela, Sicily, at the age of sixtynine. The cause of his death is unknown, although a rumor (thought
to have been started by a comic writer) claimed that Aeschylus was
killed when an eagle dropped a tortoise on his bald head. Regardless
of how he died, Aeschylus was honored with a public funeral at
which sacrifices and performances were carried out. SOPHOCLES: THE MOST SUCCESSFUL
TRAGEDIAN
Sophocles, a student of Aeschylus, is considered by many to be the
most successful of the Greek tragedians. Like Aeschylus, Sophocles
lived during a time of many wars, including the Persian Wars (546–
479 B.C..) and the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.). Sophocles’s
work was influenced by this strife.
Born into a wealthy family in 496 B.C., Sophocles was sent to
Athens to receive a good education. He studied military technique,
science, mathematics, philosophy, government, law, astronomy, and
the arts. It is widely believed that Sophocles studied under
Aeschylus.
Sophocles was a talented and popular man who excelled in nearly
everything he did. He was handsome and widely respected. He held
many public offices and was a patron of the arts. Sophocles also took
part in the Great Dionysia, winning his first victory in 468 B.C. at the
age of twenty-nine. He went on to win this competition eighteen
times (some sources say twenty-four times). Oedipus
Thanks to Sophocles, the character of Oedipus is widely
known. Sophocles began with the basic myth of Oedipus
and expanded on it, creating three of his most famous
tragedies: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, and
Antigone. The gods also appear throughout his works. Sophocles saw the gods as higher beings, and humans as
subject to their decisions. If the gods felt a man should be
punished, for example, he was indeed brought to justice. During his long life, Sophocles wrote an estimated 123 plays.
Today, only seven have survived intact: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at
Colonus, Antigone, Ajax, The Trachiniae, Philoctetes, and Electra.
Each of these plays is built on a foundation of mythology. War and
conflict are frequent themes in his plays, and this conflict causes his
characters much pain and suffering. The plays suggest that it is
through this pain and suffering that people become more human.
Sophocles died around 409 B.C. at the age of ninety. As with
Aeschylus, unlikely rumors circulated about the cause of his death.
One rumor humorously claimed he died during an attempt to recite a
long sentence from one of his plays without stopping to take a
breath; another said he choked on some grapes. However he died, it
is certain that Sophocles lived a long, full life and made a significant
contribution to Greek literature and our understanding of
mythology. EURIPIDES: A CONTROVERSIAL
PHILOSOPHER
The last of the great Greek tragedians was Euripides, known today
for his philosophical plays and strong female characters. Euripides
constantly questioned all that th...
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