Reliable knowledge about the universe is obtained through observation of
objects and events
o
While reasoning is required as part of the scientific process, it alone does
not produce new knowledge; it is used to organize the observed objects
and events
o
Science is public
o
Observations are subject to error and therefore, scientific knowledge must
be made available to others for criticism and review
o
Approaching all knowledge with a degree of skepticism helps to establish
its truthfulness or falsity
o
Science provides method
o
Science employs specific rules and procedures in the quest for knowledge
o
A hallmark is the inclusion of controls built into the procedure which
serve to check or verify the truthfulness of the newly discovered
knowledge
The Scientific Approach

A number of methods that can be used to generate knowledge
Four general steps:
o
Statement of the problem
o
Taking a generally vague idea or gelling and transforming it into a
statement that captures the issue at hand
o
The statement must be capable of being tested and proven false if the idea
is incorrect
o
Hypothesis
o
A proposition about the relation between two or more events, objects,
people, or phenomena
o
An attempt to redefine the problem in terms that are amenable to objective
investigation
o
A prediction about the relations that can be tested
o
Reasoning and deduction
o
While the hypothesis can be examined empirically, more precision is
achieved by deducing the consequences of the hypothesis
o
The reasoning/deductive process may lead to examination of new or
different problems
o
Observation/test/experiment
o
Reasoning is only part of the scientific process
o
The relationship specified in the hypothesis must be tested empirically
o
The most critical step is to gather empirical evidence that is relevant to the
hypothetical relationship
Operational definitions
o
Empirical:
an event is capable of being experienced; that it can be observed or
measured, either directly or indirectly
o
Operational definitions:
define an abstract construct in terms of specific
procedures and measures
o
Operational definitions may differ in the degree to which they represent, or
capture the essence of, the abstract concept
o
Construct-irrelevant variance:
when the operational definition is affected by
processes that are irrelevant to the construct
o
Construct underrepresentation:
the degree to which the operational definition
fails to capture important aspects of the construct
o
We often find that two studies using different operational definitions of the same
construct come to different conclusions. While this may be disconcerting in the
short term, science holds that over the long term a number of studies will
converge on the “truth” of the hypothesis
Variables

o
The events, objects, people, or phenomena references in hypothetical propositions
must vary in amount, degree, or kind
o
Such
variables
must have at least one defined characteristic that has at least two
values

