Modified cultural elements to make them conducive to protest - Almost 90% of Iranians are Shi’I Muslims o Shi’ism was perceived by non-Muslims at the time as the more revolutionary branch of Islam  Mobilization centered around 40-day cycles in Islam; protest, 39 days of mourning for martyrs, protest on the 40 th day, etc. starting in 1963 and ending in 1978 • Political implications of the cultural practice were an outcome of the protest movement’s success, not a cause of it - In social movements, there are 2 distinct uses of culture: 1. Using culture as a structure analogous to political-opportunity structures and organizational structures, which can be conducive to particular forms of protest mobilization o Political demonstrations can grow out of cultural structures 2. Protest movements construct new cultures as they go along - The Islamist movement drew upon preexisting rituals, but changed their meaning over the course of the revolution o Example: 40-day protest cycles  Other religious holidays were transformed into days of protest or strike as a means to reiterate discontent  The regime permitted demonstrations on Eid-e Fetr (end of Ramadan) in Sept 1978 → protests occurred around the country • Significant departure from past Eid rituals - Khomeini’s demands departed from previous demands of revolutionaries as well: 1. Full deposition (no partial role) of the monarchy 2. Concentration of ultimate Islamic authority in a single individual o These were never obeyed unanimously - Focus on the theme of martyrdom o Led to Western perceptions of fanaticism  Martyrdom was a last resort even for committed activists - Regime crackdown on “Black Friday” (Sept 8 1978) accounted for many martyrs - Shi’i Muslims could place personal life over communal duties, survival over martyrdom o Religion did not always encourage Iranians to participate in revolutionary activities, despite any cultural bases for the revolution itself. C. Kurzman, pp. 77-172

Kurzman: The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran; Pages 77-172 Chapter 5; General Strike: Economic Explanations •Main Question: Did an economic downturn lead to the Islamic Revolution?