Functionalism psychodynamics and the probabilistic

functionalism, psychodynamics, and the probabilistic theories
of the model builders do not completely and clearly fit. The
distinctions between the two families of theories are not
based only on differences within learning theories; there are
other specific issues upon which theories within one family
may differ (Hilgard and Bower, 1966, p. 8).
Obviously, the interpreters continue to struggle in organizing
the field of learning theories in a really fundamental way. In
1970, two developmental psychologists, Hayne W. Reese and

Willis F. Overton, presented a way to conceptualize the
theories in terms of broader models: the mechanistic or
elemental model and the organismic or holistic model.
Concepts of Elements and Wholes
“Any theory presupposes a more general model according to
which the theoretical concepts are formulated” (Reese and
Overton, 1970, p. 117). The most general models are the
world views that constitute basic models of the essential
characteristics of humankind and ultimately the nature of
learning.
Two systems that have been pervasive in both the physical
and the social sciences are the
elemental
world view (the basic metaphor of which is the machine) and
the
holistic
world view (the basic metaphor of which is the organism—
the living, organized system presented to experience in
multiple forms). Please refer to
Table 6.2
for further clarification.
The elemental model represents the universe as a system
composed of discrete pieces. These pieces—elementary
particles in motion—and their relations form the basic reality

to which all other more complex phenomena are ultimately
reducible. When forces are applied in the operation of the
system, a chain-like sequence of events results. Since these
forces are the only efficient or immediate causes of the
events in principle, complete prediction is possible, and
susceptible to quantification (Reese and Overton, 1970, p.
131).
Table 6.2
World views or metaphysical systems
Elemental model
Holistic model

Represents the universe as a machine composed of discrete
pieces operating in a spatio-temporal field: reactive and
adaptive model of man.
Represents the world as a unitary, interactive, developing
organism: active and adaptive model of man.
The holistic model represents the universe as a unitary,
interactive, developing organism. It perceives the essence of
substance to be activity, rather than the elementary particle.
From such a point of view, one element can never be like
another. As a consequence, it is the diversity that constitutes
the unity (Reese and Overton, 1970, p. 133).
The whole is therefore organic rather than mechanical in
nature. “The nature of the whole, rather than being the sum
of its parts, is presupposed by the parts and the whole

constitutes the condition of the meaning and existence of the
parts” (Reese and Overton, 1970, p. 133). Thus, the
possibility of a predictive and quantifiable universe is
precluded. When applied to the sphere of epistemology and
psychology, this world view results in an inherently and
spontaneously active organism model of humans. It sees