From the capture device and transferring them to the

from the capture device and transferring them to the
transport cages (DeNicola and Swihart 1997). Most
deer immobilization drugs are classified as controlled
substances, and their use requires U.S. Drug
Enforcement Agency licenses. After administering
immobilizing drugs, ophthalmic ointment should be
applied to prevent ocular desiccation, and masks
should be placed over the eyes. During recovery, deer
should be positioned sternally or on their right side to
avoid bloat. Efforts should be made to minimize noise
during handling procedures until the deer is fully
immobilized. Deer may be given sodium bicarbonate,
selenium/vitamin E supplements, and/or antibiotics
before release (although such treatments are not
always effective). During transportation, deer should
not be over-crowded and should be kept in the dark.
Antlers should be removed from males, or they should
be contained separately. Prior to release, if the trans-
port time is minimal, immobilizations can be reversed
with an intravenous injection of antagonists (Mech et
al. 1985, Kreeger et al. 1986). Avoid capturing and
handling deer under extreme weather conditions (e.g.,
cold rain, low temperatures [less than ten degrees
Fahrenheit] with high winds, or hot temperatures
[more than 85 degrees Fahrenheit]).
Trap and Euthanasia
Capture with box traps, Clover traps, drop nets, or
rocket nets followed by euthanasia has been assessed
or considered in only a few locations (Jordan et al.
1995). This technique can be used in areas where
there is a concern about the discharge of firearms or
in areas with very high deer densities to complement a
sharpshooting program. This method, however, is
inefficient and expensive, with costs likely exceeding
$300 per deer.
Physical restraint and euthanasia of deer in traps is
sometimes preferred over chemical means because it
allows for the consumption of meat from the deer.
Deer are greatly stressed, however, during the restraint
phase of the capturing process (DeNicola and Swihart
1997). Only trained personnel should euthanize cap-
tured deer by administering either a gunshot or a pen-
etrating captive bolt to the head.
Sharpshooting
Several communities have employed trained, experi-
enced personnel to lethally remove deer through
sharpshooting (Figure 17) with considerable success
(Deblinger et al. 1995, Drummond 1995, Jones and
Witham 1995, Stradtmann et al. 1995, Ver Steeg et
al. 1995, Butfiloski et al. 1997, DeNicola et al.
1997c). A variety of techniques can be used in sharp-

Managing White-Tailed Deer in Suburban Environments 27
shooting programs to maximize safety, humaneness,
discretion, and efficiency. The cost per deer for sharp-
shooting programs has varied, ranging from $91 to
$310 per deer.
Human safety concerns are often associated with the
discharge of firearms in suburban landscapes. The
noise associated with discharging firearms after dark
in suburban areas must be considered when develop-
ing a sharpshooting program. Often the negative pub-
lic reaction to sharpshooting is minimal if firearms are
fitted with suppressors. Also, perceptions of public