Ethics | Study Guide

Published posthumously in 1677, the Ethics is Dutch-Jewish philosopher Baruch (Benedict de) Spinoza's (1632–77) attempt to apply the formal reasoning of mathematics to a sweeping range of philosophical issues. Structured as a series of axioms, proofs, theorems, and polemical essays (those related to an aggressive attack on the ideas of another), the book argues in favor of several propositions regarding God, nature, and humanity that were highly controversial in Spinoza's time. Perhaps most notoriously, Spinoza denies the existence of a personal God. Instead he affirms that God and nature are fundamentally the same thing. Later in the work, he challenges the notion of free will and suggests that freedom is found in submission to reason rather than to emotion.

Although latter-day philosophers, as well as mathematicians, have questioned the rigor of Spinoza's so-called proofs, the Ethics remains a major milestone in the philosophical heritage of the West. Its ambitious structure has inspired many subsequent attempts to address the broad concerns of philosophy by using the precise language of mathematics. Further, in its attempt to chart out the varieties and causes of human emotion, the Ethics anticipates important aspects of modern psychology and sociology. No less important is the book's vision of a life well-lived: a life guided by reason, free from the chaos of blind urges and conflicting desires.