Eukaryotic Cells
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
A eukaryotic cell has a true membrane-bound nucleus and has other membranous organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions.Learning Objectives
Describe the structure of eukaryotic cellsKey Takeaways
Key Points
- Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells and have a "true" nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, and rod-shaped chromosomes.
- The nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes.
- Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production; the endoplasmic reticulum modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids; and the golgi apparatus is where the sorting of lipids and proteins takes place.
- Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids and detoxify poisons; vesicles and vacuoles function in storage and transport.
- Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes while plant cells do not.
- Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized plastids, whereas animal cells do not.
Key Terms
- eukaryotic: Having complex cells in which the genetic material is organized into membrane-bound nuclei.
- organelle: A specialized structure found inside cells that carries out a specific life process (e.g. ribosomes, vacuoles).
- photosynthesis: the process by which plants and other photoautotrophs generate carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide, water, and light energy in chloroplasts
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. However, unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have:- a membrane-bound nucleus
- numerous membrane-bound organelles (including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria)
- several rod-shaped chromosomes
Because a eukaryotic cell's nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, it is often said to have a "true nucleus. " Organelles (meaning "little organ") have specialized cellular roles, just as the organs of your body have specialized roles. They allow different functions to be compartmentalized in different areas of the cell.
The Nucleus & Its Structures
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, which means the cell's DNA is surrounded by a membrane. Therefore, the nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes, the cellular organelles responsible for protein synthesis. The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is the semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus. Furthermore, chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the genetic material. In prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures.
Eukaryotic Nucleus: The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm.The nucleolus is a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs.The boundary of the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope.It consists of two phospholipid bilayers: an outer membrane and an inner membrane.The nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus.
Other Membrane-Bound Organelles
Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and DNA. These organelles are often called the "energy factories" of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy-carrying molecule, by conducting cellular respiration. The endoplasmic reticulum modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids, while the golgi apparatus is where the sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins takes place. Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes; they carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. Peroxisomes also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Other than the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, there is a very subtle distinction between them: the membranes of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other membrane systems within the cell. All of these organelles are found in each and every eukaryotic cell.Animal Cells Versus Plant Cells
While all eukaryotic cells contain the aforementioned organelles and structures, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells. Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells while lysosomes take care of the cell's digestive process.
Animal Cells: Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells.Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes, and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not.
Plant Cells: Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids used for storage, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
The Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm
The plasma membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer that regulates the concentration of substances that can permeate a cell.Learning Objectives
Explain the structure and purpose of the plasma membrane of a cellKey Takeaways
Key Points
- All eukaryotic cells have a surrounding plasma membrane, which is also known as the cell membrane.
- The plasma membrane is made up by a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment.
- Only relatively small, non- polar materials can easily move through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
- Passive transport is the movement of substances across the membrane that does not require the use of energy while active transport is the movement of substances across the membrane using energy.
- Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semi- permeable membrane down its concentration gradient; this occurs when there is an imbalance of solutes outside of a cell compared to the inside the cell.
Key Terms
- phospholipid: Any lipid consisting of a diglyceride combined with a phosphate group and a simple organic molecule such as choline or ethanolamine; they are important constituents of biological membranes
- hypertonic: having a greater osmotic pressure than another
- hypotonic: Having a lower osmotic pressure than another; a cell in this environment causes water to enter the cell, causing it to swell.
The Plasma Membrane
Despite differences in structure and function, all living cells in multicellular organisms have a surrounding plasma membrane (also known as the cell membrane). As the outer layer of your skin separates your body from its environment, the plasma membrane separates the inner contents of a cell from its exterior environment. The plasma membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that controls the passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell. Wastes (such as carbon dioxide and ammonia) also leave the cell by passing through the membrane.
Eukaryotic Plasma Membrane: The eukaryotic plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins and cholesterol embedded in it.
Phospholipid Bilayer: The phospholipid bilayer consists of two adjacent sheets of phospholipids, arranged tail to tail. The hydrophobic tails associate with one another, forming the interior of the membrane. The polar heads contact the fluid inside and outside of the cell.
The membrane's lipid bilayer structure provides the cell with access control through permeability. The phospholipids are tightly packed together, while the membrane has a hydrophobic interior. This structure causes the membrane to be selectively permeable. A membrane that has selective permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided. In the case of the plasma membrane, only relatively small, non-polar materials can move through the lipid bilayer (remember, the lipid tails of the membrane are nonpolar). Some examples of these materials are other lipids, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases, and alcohol. However, water-soluble materials—such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes—need some assistance to cross the membrane because they are repelled by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer.
Transport Across the Membrane
All substances that move through the membrane do so by one of two general methods, which are categorized based on whether or not energy is required. Passive (non-energy requiring) transport is the movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy. During this type of transport, materials move by simple diffusion or by facilitated diffusion through the membrane, down their concentration gradient. Water passes through the membrane in a diffusion process called osmosis. Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane down its concentration gradient. It occurs when there is an imbalance of solutes outside of a cell versus inside the cell. The solution that has the higher concentration of solutes is said to be hypertonic and the solution that has the lower concentration of solutes is said to be hypotonic. Water molecules will diffuse out of the hypotonic solution and into the hypertonic solution (unless acted upon by hydrostatic forces).
Osmosis: Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane down its concentration gradient. If a membrane is permeable to water, though not to a solute, water will equalize its own concentration by diffusing to the side of lower water concentration (and thus the side of higher solute concentration). In the beaker on the left, the solution on the right side of the membrane is hypertonic.
Cytoplasm
The cell's plasma membrane also helps contain the cell's cytoplasm, which provides a gel-like environment for the cell's organelles. The cytoplasm is the location for most cellular processes, including metabolism, protein folding, and internal transportation.The Nucleus and Ribosomes
Found within eukaryotic cells, the nucleus contains the genetic material that determines the entire structure and function of that cell.Learning Objectives
Explain the purpose of the nucleus in eukaryotic cellsKey Takeaways
Key Points
- The nucleus contains the cell 's DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins.
- Found within the nucleoplasm, the nucleolus is a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs.
- Chromatin consists of DNA wrapped around histone proteins and is stored within the nucleoplasm.
- Ribosomes are large complexes of protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) responsible for protein synthesis when DNA from the nucleus is transcribed.
Key Terms
- histone: any of various simple water-soluble proteins that are rich in the basic amino acids lysine and arginine and are complexed with DNA in the nucleosomes of eukaryotic chromatin
- nucleolus: a conspicuous, rounded, non-membrane bound body within the nucleus of a cell
- chromatin: a complex of DNA, RNA, and proteins within the cell nucleus out of which chromosomes condense during cell division
The Nucleus
One of the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the nucleus. As previously discussed, prokaryotic cells lack an organized nucleus while eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound nuclei (and organelles ) that house the cell's DNA and direct the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins.The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm. To understand chromatin, it is helpful to first consider chromosomes. Chromatin describes the material that makes up chromosomes, which are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the hereditary material. You may remember that in prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every eukaryotic species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its body's cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome number is 46, while in fruit flies, it is eight. Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide. In order to organize the large amount of DNA within the nucleus, proteins called histones are attached to chromosomes; the DNA is wrapped around these histones to form a structure resembling beads on a string. These protein-chromosome complexes are called chromatin.
DNA is highly organized: This image shows various levels of the organization of chromatin (DNA and protein). Along the chromatin threads, unwound protein-chromosome complexes, we find DNA wrapped around a set of histone proteins.
The nucleus stores the hereditary material of the cell: The nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleus of living cells contains the genetic material that determines the entire structure and function of that cell.
Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis: Ribosomes are made up of a large subunit (top) and a small subunit (bottom). During protein synthesis, ribosomes assemble amino acids into proteins.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are organelles that are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy-carrying molecule.Learning Objectives
Explain the role of the mitochondria.Key Takeaways
Key Points
- Mitochondria contain their own ribosomes and DNA; combined with their double membrane, these features suggest that they might have once been free-living prokaryotes that were engulfed by a larger cell.
- Mitochondria have an important role in cellular respiration through the production of ATP, using chemical energy found in glucose and other nutrients.
- Mitochondria are also responsible for generating clusters of iron and sulfur, which are important cofactors of many enzymes.
Key Terms
- alpha-proteobacteria: A taxonomic class within the phylum Proteobacteria — the phototropic proteobacteria.
- adenosine triphosphate: a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme, often called the "molecular unit of energy currency" in intracellular energy transfer
- cofactor: an inorganic molecule that is necessary for an enzyme to function
Mitochondria Structure
Most mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes, which would result when one membrane-bound organism was engulfed into a vacuole by another membrane-bound organism. The mitochondrial inner membrane is extensive and involves substantial infoldings called cristae that resemble the textured, outer surface of alpha-proteobacteria. The matrix and inner membrane are rich with the enzymes necessary for aerobic respiration.
Mitochondrial structure: This electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with a transmission electron microscope. This organelle has an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane contains folds, called cristae, which increase its surface area. The space between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix. ATP synthesis takes place on the inner membrane.
Mitochondria Function
Mitochondria are often called the "powerhouses" or "energy factories" of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy-carrying molecule. ATP represents the short-term stored energy of the cell. Cellular respiration is the process of making ATP using the chemical energy found in glucose and other nutrients. In mitochondria, this process uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product. In fact, the carbon dioxide that you exhale with every breath comes from the cellular reactions that produce carbon dioxide as a by-product.It is important to point out that muscle cells have a very high concentration of mitochondria that produce ATP. Your muscle cells need a lot of energy to keep your body moving. When your cells don't get enough oxygen, they do not make a lot of ATP. Instead, the small amount of ATP they make in the absence of oxygen is accompanied by the production of lactic acid.
In addition to the aerobic generation of ATP, mitochondria have several other metabolic functions. One of these functions is to generate clusters of iron and sulfur that are important cofactors of many enzymes. Such functions are often associated with the reduced mitochondrion-derived organelles of anaerobic eukaryotes.
Origins of Mitochondria
There are two hypotheses about the origin of mitochondria: endosymbiotic and autogenous, but the most accredited theory at present is endosymbiosis. The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests mitochondria were originally prokaryotic cells, capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms. These prokaryotic cells may have been engulfed by a eukaryote and became endosymbionts living inside the eukaryote.Comparing Plant and Animal Cells
Although they are both eukaryotic cells, there are unique structural differences between animal and plant cells.Learning Objectives
Differentiate between the structures found in animal and plant cellsKey Takeaways
Key Points
- Centrosomes and lysosomes are found in animal cells, but do not exist within plant cells.
- The lysosomes are the animal cell's "garbage disposal", while in plant cells the same function takes place in vacuoles.
- Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a large central vacuole, which are not found within animal cells.
- The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell.
- The chloroplasts, found in plant cells, contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the light energy that drives the reactions of plant photosynthesis.
- The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating a plant cell's concentration of water in changing environmental conditions.
Key Terms
- protist: Any of the eukaryotic unicellular organisms including protozoans, slime molds and some algae; historically grouped into the kingdom Protoctista.
- autotroph: Any organism that can synthesize its food from inorganic substances, using heat or light as a source of energy
- heterotroph: an organism that requires an external supply of energy in the form of food, as it cannot synthesize its own
Animal Cells versus Plant Cells
Each eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and in some, vacuoles; however, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells. While both animal and plant cells have microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), animal cells also have centrioles associated with the MTOC: a complex called the centrosome. Animal cells each have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.The Centrosome
The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules. The centrosome (the organelle where all microtubules originate) replicates itself before a cell divides, and the centrioles appear to have some role in pulling the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the exact function of the centrioles in cell division isn't clear, because cells that have had the centrosome removed can still divide; and plant cells, which lack centrosomes, are capable of cell division.
The Centrosome Structure: The centrosome consists of two centrioles that lie at right angles to each other. Each centriole is a cylinder made up of nine triplets of microtubules. Nontubulin proteins (indicated by the green lines) hold the microtubule triplets together.
Lysosomes
Animal cells have another set of organelles not found in plant cells: lysosomes. The lysosomes are the cell's "garbage disposal." In plant cells, the digestive processes take place in vacuoles. Enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH than that of the cytoplasm. Therefore, the pH within lysosomes is more acidic than the pH of the cytoplasm. Many reactions that take place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, so the advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell into organelles is apparent.The Cell Wall
The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Fungal and protistan cells also have cell walls. While the chief component of prokaryotic cell walls is peptidoglycan, the major organic molecule in the plant cell wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide comprised of glucose units. When you bite into a raw vegetable, like celery, it crunches. That's because you are tearing the rigid cell walls of the celery cells with your teeth.
Cellulose: Cellulose is a long chain of β-glucose molecules connected by a 1-4 linkage. The dashed lines at each end of the figure indicate a series of many more glucose units. The size of the page makes it impossible to portray an entire cellulose molecule.
Chloroplasts
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, but chloroplasts have an entirely different function. Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to make glucose and oxygen. This is a major difference between plants and animals; plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like sugars, while animals (heterotrophs) must ingest their food.Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast's inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids. Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane that surrounds the grana is called the stroma.
The Chloroplast Structure: The chloroplast has an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and membrane structures called thylakoids that are stacked into grana. The space inside the thylakoid membranes is called the thylakoid space. The light harvesting reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the synthesis of sugar takes place in the fluid inside the inner membrane, which is called the stroma.