# Electrolysis

### Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe electrolytic cells and their relationship to galvanic cells
• Perform various calculations related to electrolysis

In galvanic cells, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. The opposite is true for electrolytic cells. In electrolytic cells, electrical energy causes nonspontaneous reactions to occur in a process known as electrolysis. The charging electric car pictured at the beginning of this module shows one such process. Electrical energy is converted into the chemical energy in the battery as it is charged. Once charged, the battery can be used to power the automobile.

The same principles are involved in electrolytic cells as in galvanic cells. We will look at three electrolytic cells and the quantitative aspects of electrolysis.

## The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride

In molten sodium chloride, the ions are free to migrate to the electrodes of an electrolytic cell. A simplified diagram of the cell commercially used to produce sodium metal and chlorine gas is shown in Figure 1. Sodium is a strong reducing agent and chlorine is used to purify water, and is used in antiseptics and in paper production. The reactions are

$\begin{array}{rll}\text{anode:}&2\text{Cl}^{-}\left(l\right)\longrightarrow\text{Cl}_{2}\left(g\right)+2\text{e}^{-}&\text{E}^{\circ}_{\text{Cl}_2/\text{Cl}^{-}}=+1.3\text{ V}\\ \text{cathode:}&\text{Na}^{+}\left(l\right)+\text{e}^{-}\longrightarrow\text{Na}\left(l\right)&\text{E}^{\circ}_{\text{Na}^{+}\text{/Na}}=-2.7\text{ V}\\ \\ \text{overall:}&2\text{Na}^{+}\left(l\right)+2\text{Cl}^{-}\left(l\right)\longrightarrow2\text{Na}\left(l\right)+\text{Cl}_2\left(g\right)&\text{E}_{\text{cell}}=-4.0\text{ V}\end{array}$

The power supply (battery) must supply a minimum of 4 V, but, in practice, the applied voltages are typically higher because of inefficiencies in the process itself.

Figure 1. Passing an electric current through molten sodium chloride decomposes the material into sodium metal and chlorine gas. Care must be taken to keep the products separated to prevent the spontaneous formation of sodium chloride.

## The Electrolysis of Water

It is possible to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gas by electrolysis. Acids are typically added to increase the concentration of hydrogen ion in solution (Figure 2). The reactions are

$\begin{array}{rll}{}\text{anode:}&2\text{H}_2\text{O}\left(l\right)\longrightarrow\text{O}_2\left(g\right)+4\text{H}^{+}\left(aq\right)+4\text{e}^{-}&\text{E}^{\circ}_{\text{anode}}=+1.229\text{ V}\\ \text{cathode:}&2\text{H}^{+}\left(aq\right)+2\text{e}^{-}\longrightarrow\text{H}_{2}\left(g\right)&\text{E}^{\circ}_{\text{cathode}}=0\text{ V}\\ \\ \text{overall:}&2\text{H}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)\longrightarrow2\text{H}_{2}\left(g\right)+\text{O}_{2}\left(g\right)&\text{E}^{\circ}_{\text{cell}}=-1.229\text{ V}\end{array}$

Note that the sulfuric acid is not consumed and that the volume of hydrogen gas produced is twice the volume of oxygen gas produced. The minimum applied voltage is 1.229 V.

Figure 2. Water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen gas during electrolysis. Sulfuric acid was added to increase the concentration of hydrogen ions and the total number of ions in solution, but does not take part in the reaction. The volume of hydrogen gas collected is twice the volume of oxygen gas collected, due to the stoichiometry of the reaction.

## The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride

The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride is the more common example of electrolysis because more than one species can be oxidized and reduced. Considering the anode first, the possible reactions are

(i) 2Cl(aq) ⟶ Cl2(g) + 2e ;  Eanode = +1.35827 V

(ii) 2H2O(l) ⟶ O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e ; Eanode =+1.229 V

These values suggest that water should be oxidized at the anode because a smaller potential would be needed—using reaction (ii) for the oxidation would give a less-negative cell potential. When the experiment is run, it turns out chlorine, not oxygen, is produced at the anode. The unexpected process is so common in electrochemistry that it has been given the name overpotential. The overpotential is the difference between the theoretical cell voltage and the actual voltage that is necessary to cause electrolysis. It turns out that the overpotential for oxygen is rather high and effectively makes the reduction potential more positive. As a result, under normal conditions, chlorine gas is what actually forms at the anode.

Now consider the cathode. Three reductions could occur:

(iii) 2H+(aq) + 2e− ⟶ H2(g)  ; Ecathode = 0 V

(iv) 2H2O(l) + 2e− ⟶ H2(g) + 2OH(aq)  ; Ecathode = −0.8277 V

(v) Na+(aq) + e− ⟶ Na(s)  ; Ecathode = −2.71 V

Reaction (v) is ruled out because it has such a negative reduction potential. Under standard state conditions, reaction (iii) would be preferred to reaction (iv). However, the pH of a sodium chloride solution is 7, so the concentration of hydrogen ions is only 1× 10−7 M. At such low concentrations, reaction (iii) is unlikely and reaction (iv) occurs. The overall reaction is then

overall: 2H2O(l) + 2Cl(aq) ⟶ H2(g) + Cl2(g) + 2OH(aq) ; Ecell = −2.186 V

As the reaction proceeds, hydroxide ions replace chloride ions in solution. Thus, sodium hydroxide can be obtained by evaporating the water after the electrolysis is complete. Sodium hydroxide is valuable in its own right and is used for things like oven cleaner, drain opener, and in the production of paper, fabrics, and soap.

### Electroplating

An important use for electrolytic cells is in electroplating. Electroplating results in a thin coating of one metal on top of a conducting surface. Reasons for electroplating include making the object more corrosion resistant, strengthening the surface, producing a more attractive finish, or for purifying metal. The metals commonly used in electroplating include cadmium, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, silver, and tin. Common consumer products include silver-plated or gold-plated tableware, chrome-plated automobile parts, and jewelry. We can get an idea of how this works by investigating how silver-plated tableware is produced (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The spoon, which is made of an inexpensive metal, is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source and acts as the cathode. The anode is a silver electrode. Both electrodes are immersed in a silver nitrate solution. When a steady current is passed through the solution, the net result is that silver metal is removed from the anode and deposited on the cathode.

In Figure 3, the anode consists of a silver electrode, shown on the left. The cathode is located on the right and is the spoon, which is made from inexpensive metal. Both electrodes are immersed in a solution of silver nitrate. As the potential is increased, current flows. Silver metal is lost at the anode as it goes into solution.

anode: Ag(s) ⟶ Ag+(aq) + e

The mass of the cathode increases as silver ions from the solution are deposited onto the spoon

cathode: Ag+(aq) + e ⟶ Ag(s)

The net result is the transfer of silver metal from the anode to the cathode. The quality of the object is usually determined by the thickness of the deposited silver and the rate of deposition.

## Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis

The amount of current that is allowed to flow in an electrolytic cell is related to the number of moles of electrons. The number of moles of electrons can be related to the reactants and products using stoichiometry. Recall that the SI unit for current (I) is the ampere (A), which is the equivalent of 1 coulomb per second
$\left(1\text{ A}=1\text{ }\frac{\text{C}}{\text{s}}\right)$
. The total charge (Q, in coulombs) is given by

= × = × F

Where t is the time in seconds, n the number of moles of electrons, and F is the Faraday constant.

Moles of electrons can be used in stoichiometry problems. The time required to deposit a specified amount of metal might also be requested, as in the second of the following examples.

### Example 1: Converting Current to Moles of Electrons

In one process used for electroplating silver, a current of 10.23 A was passed through an electrolytic cell for exactly 1 hour. How many moles of electrons passed through the cell? What mass of silver was deposited at the cathode from the silver nitrate solution?

Aluminum metal can be made from aluminum ions by electrolysis. What is the half-reaction at the cathode? What mass of aluminum metal would be recovered if a current of 2.50 × 103 A passed through the solution for 15.0 minutes? Assume the yield is 100%.

### Example 2: Time Required for Deposition

In one application, a 0.010-mm layer of chromium must be deposited on a part with a total surface area of 3.3 m2 from a solution of containing chromium(III) ions. How long would it take to deposit the layer of chromium if the current was 33.46 A? The density of chromium (metal) is 7.19 g/cm3.

What mass of zinc is required to galvanize the top of a 3.00 m × 5.50 m sheet of iron to a thickness of 0.100 mm of zinc? If the zinc comes from a solution of Zn(NO3)2 and the current is 25.5 A, how long will it take to galvanize the top of the iron? The density of zinc is 7.140 g/cm3.

### Key Concepts and Summary

Using electricity to force a nonspontaneous process to occur is electrolysis. Electrolytic cells are electrochemical cells with negative cell potentials (meaning a positive Gibbs free energy), and so are nonspontaneous. Electrolysis can occur in electrolytic cells by introducing a power supply, which supplies the energy to force the electrons to flow in the nonspontaneous direction. Electrolysis is done in solutions, which contain enough ions so current can flow. If the solution contains only one material, like the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, it is a simple matter to determine what is oxidized and what is reduced. In more complicated systems, like the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride, more than one species can be oxidized or reduced and the standard reduction potentials are used to determine the most likely oxidation (the half-reaction with the largest [most positive] standard reduction potential) and reduction (the half-reaction with the smallest [least positive] standard reduction potential). Sometimes unexpected half-reactions occur because of overpotential. Overpotential is the difference between the theoretical half-reaction reduction potential and the actual voltage required. When present, the applied potential must be increased, making it possible for a different reaction to occur in the electrolytic cell. The total charge, Q, that passes through an electrolytic cell can be expressed as the current (I) multiplied by time (Q = It) or as the moles of electrons (n) multiplied by Faraday’s constant (Q = nF). These relationships can be used to determine things like the amount of material used or generated during electrolysis, how long the reaction must proceed, or what value of the current is required.

#### Key Equations

• Q = I × t = n × F

### Exercises

1. Identify the reaction at the anode, reaction at the cathode, the overall reaction, and the approximate potential required for the electrolysis of the following molten salts. Assume standard states and that the standard reduction potentials in Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials are the same as those at each of the melting points. Assume the efficiency is 100%.

1. CaCl2
2. LiH
3. AlCl3
4. CrBr3

2. What mass of each product is produced in each of the electrolytic cells of the previous problem if a total charge of 3.33 × 105 C passes through each cell? Assume the voltage is sufficient to perform the reduction.
3. How long would it take to reduce 1 mole of each of the following ions using the current indicated? Assume the voltage is sufficient to perform the reduction.

1. Al3+, 1.234 A
2. Ca2+, 22.2 A
3. Cr5+, 37.45 A
4. Au3+, 3.57 A

4. A current of 2.345 A passes through the cell shown in Figure for 45 minutes. What is the volume of the hydrogen collected at room temperature if the pressure is exactly 1 atm? Assume the voltage is sufficient to perform the reduction. (Hint: Is hydrogen the only gas present above the water?)
5. An irregularly shaped metal part made from a particular alloy was galvanized with zinc using a Zn(NO3)2 solution. When a current of 2.599 A was used, it took exactly 1 hour to deposit a 0.01123-mm layer of zinc on the part. What was the total surface area of the part? The density of zinc is 7.140 g/cm3. Assume the efficiency is 100%.

## Glossary

electrolysis: process using electrical energy to cause a nonspontaneous process to occur

electrolytic cell: electrochemical cell in which electrolysis is used; electrochemical cell with negative cell potentials

electroplating: depositing a thin layer of one metal on top of a conducting surface

overpotential: difference between the theoretical potential and actual potential in an electrolytic cell; the “extra” voltage required to make some nonspontaneous electrochemical reaction to occur