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254 CHAPTER 11 gold this "withdrawal sickness," or "abstinence yadict who is acately cave physical dependence ceiving large doses of heroin, the prospect of absta could encounter; to Pain, and hallucinationsvomiting, stomacement for continuing to msomn's the resulting body chills, vomi interestingly, some of the more widely abused drugs maris name or no po. cential for creating physical dependence. Drugs such as ma gana, LSD, 20. cocaine create strong anxieties when their repeated use is discontinued; hand ever, no medical evidence attributes these discomforts to physiological read tions that accompany withdrawal sickness. On the other hand, use of alcon heroin, and barbiturates can result in the development of physical dependen ol, Physical dependence develops only when the drug user adheres to a rege: lar schedule of drug intake; that is, the interval between doses must be shill though so that the effects of the drug never wear off completely. For exampit the interval between injections of heroin for the drug addict probably does not exceed six to eight hours. Beyond this time the addict will begin to experience the uncomfortable symptoms of withdrawal. Many users of heroin avoid tale ing the drug on a regular basis for fear of becoming physically addicted to its use. Similarly, the risk of developing physical dependence on alcohol becomes greatest when the consumption is characterized by a continuing pattern S daily use in large quantities. Table 11.1 categorizes some of the more commonly abused drugs according to their effects on the body and summarizes their tendency to produce psych logical dependence and to induce physical dependence with repeated use. SOCIETAL ASPECTS OF DRUG USE The social impact of drug dependence is directly related to the extent to which the user has become preoccupied with the drug. Here, the most important element is the extent to which drug use has become interwoven in the fabric of the user's life. The more frequently the drug satisfies the person's need, the greater the likelihood that he or she will become preoccupied with its use, with a consequent neglect of individual and social responsibilities. Personal health, economic relationships, and family obligations may all suffer as the drug-seeking behavior increases in frequency and intensity and dominates the individual's life. The extreme of drug dependence may lead to behavior that has serious implications for the public's safety, health, and welfare. Drug dependence in its broadest sense involves much of the world's popu- lation. As a result, a complex array of individual, social, cultural, legal, and medical factors ultimately influence society's decision to prohibit or impose strict controls on a drug's distribution and use. Invariably, society must weigh the beneficial aspects of the drug against the ultimate harm its abuse will do to the individual and to society as a whole. Obviously, many forms of drug dependence do not carry sufficient adverse social consequences to warrant their prohibition, as illustrated by the widespread use of such drug-containing substances as tobacco and coffee. Although the heavy and prolonged use of these drugs may eventually damage body organs and injure an individual's health, there is no evidence that they result in antisocial behavior, even with prolonged or excessive use. Hence, society is willing to accept the widespread use of these substances. We are certainly all aware of the disastrous failure of the prohibition by the United States of alcohol use during the 1920s and also of the current debate on whether marijuana should be legalized. Each of these issues emphasizes the delicate balance between individual desires and needs and society's concern with the consequences of drug abuse; moreover, this balance is continuously subject to change and reevaluation.

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255 DRUGS tely causes stomed to with Regular Use MABLE 11.1 The Potential of Some Commonly Abused Drugs to Produce Dependence countering insomnia, use . DRUG or no po- PSYCHOLOGICAL Narcotics PHYSICAL LSD, and DEPENDENCE DEPENDENCE led; how- Morphine ical reac- f alcohol, Heroin High Yes ndence. Methadone High a regu- Yes be short Codeine High Yes xample, loes not Depressants Low Yes erience bid tak- Barbiturates (short-acting) d to its Barbiturates (long-acting) High Yes comes Low Yes tern of Alcohol Yes ording Methaqualone (Quaalude) High High Yes sycho- Meprobamate (Miltown, Equanil) e. Moderate Yes Diazepam (Valium) Moderate Yes Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) Moderate Yes which Stimulants rtant abric Amphetamines High ? 1, the Cocaine High No use, onal Caffeine Low No the Yes s the Nicotine High that Hallucinogens Low No pu- Marijuana No and Low ose LSD High No igh Phencyclidine (PCP) do ug ant Quick Review ng . A drug is a natural or synthetic substance that is used to produce physi- of ological or psychological effects in humans or other animals. I's . Nondrug factors that play a part in drug dependence include the personal th characteristics of the user, his or her expectations about the drug experi- ad ence, society's attitudes toward and possible responses to the drug, and the setting in which the drug is used. . Physical dependence is defined as a physiological need for a drug that has le been brought about by its regular use. Psychological dependence is the conditioned use of a drug caused by underlying emotional needs.

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Types of Drugs narcotic NARCOTIC DRUGS A drug that induces sleep and depresses vital body The term narcotic is derived from the Greek word narkotikos, meaning "numb- functions such as blood pressure, ness" or "deadening." Although pharmacologists classify narcotic drugs as substances that relieve pain and produce sleep, the term "narcotic" has become pulse rate, and breathing rate. popularly associated with any drug that is socially unacceptable. As a conse- quence of this incorrect perception, many drugs are improperly called "narcotics." This confusion has produced legal definitions that differ from the phar- macological actions of many drugs. For example, until the early 1970s, most drug laws in the United States incorrectly designated marijuana as a narcotic. Even today, federal law classifies cocaine as a narcotic drug; however, phar- macologically speaking, cocaine is actually a powerful central nervous system stimulant, possessing properties opposite those normally associated with the depressant effects of a narcotic. OPIATES Medical professionals apply the term "opiate" to most of the drugs properly classified as narcotics. Opiates behave pharmacologically like morphine, which is a painkiller derived from opium-the gummy, milky juice that exudes from cuts made on the unripe pods of the Asian poppy (Papaver somniferium). Although morphine is readily extracted from opium, the most commonly used opium-based drug is heroin, which is produced by reacting morphine with acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride (see Figure 11-3). Heroin's high solubility in water makes its street preparation for intravenous administration rather simple, and only by injection are heroin's effects felt almost instantaneously and with maximum sensitivity. To prepare the drug for injection, the addict frequently dissolves it in a small quantity of water in a spoon. The process can be speeded up by heating the spoon over a candle or several matches. The solution is then drawn into a syringe or eyedropper and injected under the skin (see Figure 11-4). HEROIN FIGURE 11-3 The opium poppy and its derivatives. Shown codeine, heroin, and morphine. Pearson

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CLOSER ANALYSIS G WHAT'S IN THAT BAG? The contents of a typical bag of heroin is an excellent example of material. Traditionally, quinine has been the most common diluent the uncertainty attached to buying illicit drugs. For many years in of heroin. Like heroin, it has a bitter taste and was probably origi- the 1960s and into the early 1970s, the average bag contained 15 to nally used to obscure the actual potency of a heroin preparation from 20 percent heroin. Currently, the average purity of heroin obtained in those who wished to taste-test the material before buying it. Other the illicit U.S. market is approximately 35 percent. The addict rarely knows or cares what composes the other 65 percent or so of the diluents commonly added to heroin are starch, lactose, procaine (Novocain), and mannitol. Because it is a legal drug that is diverted from legitimate sources, OxyContin is obtained very differently from illegal drugs. Pharmacy robberies, forged pre- scriptions, and theft of the drug from patients with a legitimate prescription are ways abusers access OxyContin. Some abusers visit numerous doctors and receive prescriptions even though their medical condition may not warrant it. HALLUCINOGENS hallucinogen Hallucinogens are drugs that can cause marked alterations in normal thought A substance that induces changes processes, perceptions, and moods. Perhaps the most popular and controver- in normal thought processes, sial member of this class of drugs is marijuana. perceptions, and moods. MARIJUANA Marijuana is the popular name of the plant Cannabis sativa, a weed that will grow wild in most climates. The Cannabis plant contains a chemical known as "tetrahydrocannabinol," or THC, which produces the psychoactive effects experienced by users. The THC content of Cannabis varies in different parts of the plant. The greatest concentration is usually found in a sticky resin produced by the plant, known as "hashish." Declining concentrations are typically found in the flowers and leaves, respectively. Little THC is found in the stem, roots, or seeds of the plant. The potency and resulting effect of the drug fluctuate, depending on the relative proportion of these plant parts in the marijuana mixture consumed by the user. The most common method of administration is by smoking either the dried flowers and leaves or variou preparations of hashish (see Figure 11-5). Marijuana is also occasionally taken orally, typically baked in sweets such as brownies or cookies. Any study of marijuana's effect on humans must consider the potency of the marijuana preparation. An interesting insight into the relationship be- tween dosage level and marijuana's pharmacological effect was presented in the first report of the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse: At low, usual "social" doses the user may experience an increased sense of well- being; initial restlessness and hilarity followed by a dreamy, carefree state of relax- ation; alteration of sensory perceptions including expansion of space and time; a more vivid sense of touch, sight, smell, taste and sound; a feeling of hunger, espe- cially a craving for sweets; and subtle changes in thought formation and expres- sion. To an unknowing observer, an individual in this state of consciousness would not appear noticeably different from his normal state. At higher, moderate doses these same reactions are intensified but the changes in the individual would still be scarcely noticeable to an observer. At very high doses, psychotomimetic phenomena may be experienced. These include distortion of body image, loss of personal identity, sensory and mental illusions, fantasies and hallucinations.1

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259 DRUGS diluent y origi- n from Other ocaine ntin re- tion and ght FIGURE 11-5 Several rolled marijuana cigarettes lie on a pile of crushed, dried marijuana leaves next to er- a tobacco cigarette. Drug Enforcement Administration ed Marijuana easily qualifies as the most widely used illicit drug in the United States. For instance, more than 43 million Americans have trie according to the latest surveys, and almost half that number may be for ave tried marijuana , users. In addition to it's widespread illegal use, accumulating evidence suggests that marijuana has potential medical uses. Two promising areas of research are marijuana's reduction of excessive eye pressure in sufferers of glaucoma and the lessening of nausea caused by powerful anticancer drugs. Marijuana may also be useful as a muscle relaxant. No current evidence suggests that experimental or intermittent use of mar- ijuana causes physical or psychological harm. Marijuana does not cause phys- ical dependence. However, the risk of harm lies instead in heavy, long-term use, particularly of the more potent preparations. Heavy users can develop a strong psychological dependence on the drug. Some effects of marijuana use include increased heart rate, dry mouth, reddened eyes, impaired motor skills and concentration, and frequently hunger and an increased desire for sweets. OTHER HALLUCINOGENS A substantial number of other substances with widely varying chemical compositions are also used recreationally because of their hallucinogenic properties. These include both naturally occurring substances such as mescaline and psilocybin and synthetically created drugs including lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and phencyclidine (PCP). LSD is synthesized from lysergic acid, a substance derived from ergot, which is a type of fungus that attacks certain grasses and grains. The drug appears in a variety of forms-as a pill, added to a cube of sugar, or absorbed onto a small piece of paper-and is taken orally. Its hallucinogenic effects were first described by the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann after he accidentally in- gested some of the material in his laboratory in 1943. LSD produces marked changes in mood, leading to laughing or crying at the slightest provocation. Feelings of anxiety and tension almost always accompany LSD use. LSD is very potent; as little as 25 micrograms is enough to induce vivid visual hal- fucinations that can last for about 12 hours. Although physical dependence

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260 CHAPTER 11 CLOSER ANALYSIS DUG MARIJUANA AND HASHISH Marijuana is a weed that will grow wild in most climates. The plant Hashish preparations average about 2 to 8 percent THC. On the grows to a height of 5 to is feet and to characterized by an odd illicit drug market, hashish (see photo) usually appears in the form number of leaflets on each leaf. Normally each leaf contains five to of compressed vegetation containing a high percentage of resin. nine leaflets, all with serrated or sawtooth edges. A particularly potent form of hashish is known as "liquid hashish" or The potency of marijuana depends on its form. Marijuana in the " hashish oil." Hashish in this form is normally a viscous substance, form of loose vegetation has an average The content of about 3 to dark green with a tarry consistency. Liquid hashish is produced by 4.5 percent. The more potent sinsemilia form averages about 6 to efficiently extracting the THC-rich resin from the marijuana plant with 12 percent in THC content. Sinsemilla is the unfertilized flowering an appropriate solvent, such as alcohol. The THC content of liquid tops of the female Cannabis plants, acquired by removing all male hashish typically varies from 8 to 22 percent. Because of its extraor- plants from the growing field at the first sign of their appearance. dinary potency, one drop of the material can produce a "high." Production of sinsemilla requires a great deal of attention and care, and the plant is therefore cultivated on small plots. The marijuana leaf. SPL/Science Source Images Blocks of hashish in front of leaves and flowering tops of the marijuana plant. James King-Holmes/Science Source Images does not develop with continued use, the individual user may be prone to flashbacks and psychotic reactions even after use is discontinued. Abuse of the hallucinogen phencyclidine, commonly called "PCP," has re- cently grown to alarming proportions. Because this drug can be synthesized by simple chemical processes, it is manufactured surreptitiously for the illicit market in so-called clandestine laboratories (see Figure 11-6). These labo- ratories range from large, sophisticated operations to small labs located in garages or bathrooms. Small-time operators normally have little or no train- ing in chemistry and employ "cookbook" methods to synthesize the drug. Some of the more knowledgeable and experienced operators have been able

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261 DRUGS CLOSER ANALYSIS SYNTHETIC CANNABIS Synthetic cannabinoids are chemicals designed to mimic the pharma names have become quite varied as clandestine laboratories have logical entering retail establishments or cannabinoids. These drugs are become adept and innovative, by ve in modifying their chemical structures generally sold in retail establishments or over the Internet as herbal pro- cedures, potpourri, or incense. Users generally spray the chemicals onto seeking to circumvent control by drug laws. Because the chemical botanical materials and inhale the drug through burning or smoking. structure of synthetic cannabinoids do not resemble marijuana con- Synthetic cannabinoids derive their pharmacological a stituents, they cannot be detected by routine drug screening tests. ogy associated with the use of synthetic canna- from their affinity toward cannabinoid (CB) receptor sites in the brain. binoids can result in anxiety , agitation, and nausea . A federal law , in their ave .however, currently their ent by the common names the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, broadly he symptomology asso " and "spice .however chemical composition and covers any material that contains a synthetic cannabinoid. operation. to achieve clandestine production levels that approach a commercial level of phencyclidine is often mixed with other drugs , such as LSD or ampher amines, and is sold as a powder (known as " angel dust"), capsule, or tables as a liquid sprayed on plant leaves. The drug is smoked, ingested, or sniffed. Following oral intake of moderate doses ( 1 to 6 milligrams), the user first ex ces feelings of strength and invulnerability, along with a dreamy sense of detachment. Howey However , the user soon becomes unresponsive , confused , and agitated. Depression, irritability, feelings of isolation, audio and visual hallu- cinations, and sometimes paranoia accompany PCP use. Severe depression, tendencies toward violence, and suicide accompany long-term daily use of the drug. In some cases, the PCP user experiences sudden schizophrenic behavior days after the drug has been taken. FIGURE 11-6 A scene from a clandestine drug laboratory. Drug Enforcement Administration

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267 breakdown, stroke, kidney failure, and cardiovascu DRUGS Pr system failure often accompany chronic abuse of stasy. In addition, chronic use of Ecstasy leads to serious damage to the areas of the brain responsible for thought and memory. Ecstasy increases heart te and blood pressure ; produces muscle tension , teeth grinding, and nausea; and causes psychologi cal difficulties such as confusion , severe anxiety , and paranoia . The drug can cause significant increases in body temperature from the combination of the atmosphere of a rave club . drug's stimulant effect with the often hot, crowded Ketamine is primarily used in veterinary medi- cine as an animal anesthetic. When used by humans, e drug can cause euphoria and feelings of unreal - ity accompanied by visual h sual hallucinations. Ketamine FIGURE 11-11 Anabolic steroids: a vial of testosterone and a syringe. can also cause impaired motor function , high blood Testosterone , can sure, amnesia, and mild respiratory depressood Testosterone, the male sex horn sex hormone, is sometimes abused by athletes ANABOLIC STEROIDS for its protein-building (anabolic) effect. SPL/Science Source Images Anabolic steroids are synthetic compounds that are chemically related to ur male sex hormone testosterone . Testosterone has two effects on the body. it anabolic steroids synthetic compounds, chemically promotes the development of secondary male characteristics (i.e., androger related to the male sex hormone offects), and it accelerates muscle growth (i.e., anabolic effects). Efforts to pro testosterone, that are used to mote muscle growth and to minimize the hormone's androger nic effects have promote muscle growth. led to the synthesis of numerous anabolic steroids. However, a steroid free of developed . the accompanying harmful side effects of an androgen drug has not yet been Incidence of steroid abuse first received widespread public attention when both amateur and professional athletes were discovered using these substances to enhance their performance. Interestingly, current research on male athletes given anabolic steroids has generally found little or, at best, marginal evidence of enhanced strength or performance. Although the full extent of anabolic steroid abuse by the general public is not fully known, the U.S. government is sufficiently concerned to regulate the availability of these drugs to the general population and to severely punish individuals for illegal possession and distribution of anabolic steroids. In 1991, anabolic steroids were classified as controlled dangerous substances, and the Drug Enforcement Administration was given enforcement power to prevent their llegal use and distribution (see Figure 11-11). Anabolic steroids are usually taken by individuals who are unfamiliar with their harmful medical side effects. Liver cancer and other liver malfunctions have been linked to steroid use. These drugs also cause masculinizing effects in females, infertility, and diminished sex drive in males. For teenagers, anabolic steroids result in the premature halting of bone growth. Anabolic steroids can also cause unpredictable effects on mood and personality, leading to unpro- voked acts of anger and destructive behavior. Depression is also a frequent side effect of anabolic steroid abuse. Quick Review . Narcotic drugs are analgesics, meaning that they relieve pain by depressing The most common source for narcotic drugs is opium. Morphine is the central nervous system. extracted from opium and used to synthesize heroin.

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273 DRUGS the sec- nfirming uminous e chemi- on these ided by identify tance to t identi- netimes (a ) If is in- scheme ( b ) A photomicrograph of a n ( b ) aly one FIGURE 11-1rograph of a methamphetamine crusts crystal formed in platinum chionsan Bernardino County Sheriff's Department rimen- pond- eyond of chemical solomons to the suspect vegetation. A positive result is shown by a purple color when chloroform is added. ed for Van rhinothe extra turns blue-purple in the presence of LSD. How- just to ever , owing in. is extremely small quantities of LSD in illicit preparations , f each this test is difficult to conduct under field conditions. may Scott Test. This is a color test for cocaine. A powder containing cocaine alysis turns a cobalt thiocyanate solution blue. Upon the addition of hydrochloric acid, the blue color is transformed to a clear pink color. Upon the addition quan- form layer . of chloroform, if cocaine is present, the blue color reappears in the chloro- first 1 re- tical MICROCRYSTALLINE TESTS com- A technique considerably more specific than color tests is the microcrystalline microcrystalline test test. A drop of a chemical reagent is added to a small quantity of the drug on A test that identifies a specific a microscopic slide. After a short time, a chemical reaction ensues, producing substance based on the color and rug- phy, a crystalline precipitate. The size and shape of the crystals, examined under a shape of crystals formed when the compound microscope, reveal the identity of the drug. Crystal tests for cocaine substance is mixed with specific and methamphetamine are illustrated in Figure 11-13. reagents. Over the years, analysts have developed hundreds of crystal tests to char- acterize the most commonly abused drugs. These tests can be rapidly executed and to not require the isolation of a drug from its diluents; however, uents can sometimes alter or modify the shape of the crystal, the must develop experience in interpreting the results of the test. st color and crystal tests are largely empirical-that is, scientists do ully understand why they produce the results they do. From the forensic emist's point of view, this is not important. When the tests are properly cho- proper combination, they reveal characteristics that identify sen and a certain drug to the exclusion of all others. the new ysts use screening tests to determine the identity of drugs present in ample. These tests reduce the number of possible drugs to a small and A series of color tests produce characteristic colors for the more com- manageable number. monly encountered illicit drugs. In a microcrystalline test, a drop of a chemical reagent added to a small quantity of drug on a microscope slide produces crystals highly characteristic of a drug. After preliminary testing, forensic chemists use more specific tests to identify d drug substance to the exclusion of all other known chemical substances.

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273 ntially, the sec- DRUGS nd confirming e voluminous all the chemi- look on these ist, aided by ently identify substance to t that identi- Bell slinw sometimes a ) n itself is in- ical scheme ( b ) ad only one FIGURE 11-13 (all protomicrograph of a cocaine crystal formed in platinum chloride (40orard xperimen- County Sheriff's Department ") A photomicrograph of a methamphetamine crystal formed in gold chloride (400*). San e respond- be beyond of chemical solutions to the suspect vege a purple color when chi e need for 4. Van Urk. The reagent n chloroform is added . tes just to this Jetation. A positive result is shown ge of each eagent turns blue-purple in the presence of LSD . How - ever, owing to the extremely small quantities of LSD in illicit prepar wder may s test is difficult to conduct under field conditions. analysis 5. Scott Test. his is a color test for cocaine. A powder containing cocaine ine. Turns a cobalt thiocyanate solution blue. Upon the addition of hydrochloric at quan- out first form layer . acid, the blue color is transformed to a clear pink color. Upon the addition of chloroform, if cocaine is present, the blue color reappears in the chloro- terial re- nalytical MICROCRYSTALLINE TESTS accom- A technique considerably more specific than color tests is the microcrystalline microcrystalline test drug- rest. A drop of a chemical reagent is added to a small quantity of the drug on A test that identifies a specific graphy, a microscopic slide. After a short time, a chemical reaction ensues, producing s a crystalline precipitate. The size and shape of the crystals, examined under a substance based on the color and shape of crystals formed when the compound microscope, reveal the identity of the drug. Crystal tests for cocaine substance is mixed with specific and methamphetamine are illustrated in Figure 11-13. Over the years, analysts have developed hundreds of crystal tests to char- reagents. acterize the most commonly abused drugs. These tests can be rapidly executed rought and often do not require the isolation of a drug from its diluents; however, s. Not because diluents can sometimes alter or modify the shape of the crystal, the r of a examiner must develop experience in interpreting the results of the test. vesti- Most color and crystal tests are largely empirical-that is, scientists do ected not fully understand why they produce the results they do. From the forensic chemist's point of view, this is not important. When the tests are properly cho- vever, sen and used in proper combination, they reveal characteristics that identify only the substance as a certain drug to the exclusion of all others. on of Quick Review WS: . Analysts use screening tests to determine the identity of drugs present in pres- a sample. These tests reduce the number of possible drugs to a small and 1 de- manageable number. when . A series of color tests produce characteristic colors for the more com- monly encountered illicit drugs. In a microcrystalline test, a drop of a ines. chemical reagent added to a small quantity of drug on a microscope slide ing produces crystals highly characteristic of a drug. re- After preliminary testing, forensic chemists use more specific tests to identify a drug substance to the exclusion of all other known chemical substances. ... lor ries

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277 DRUGS Pentobarbital molog sil Secobarbital uns boniigm add to rolls loo orb ount beta spinves Wore meand ulloa ar mulos is won 0 1 2 3 4 (a) 5 6 TIME (MINUTES) 8 9 10 11 12 - Amobarbital Butabarbital - Pentobarbital *Secobarbital rds Phenobarbital - 6 8 10 11 12 2 3 5 9 0 TIME (MINUTES) (b) FIGURE 11-18 (a) An unknown mixture of barbiturates is identified by comparing its retention times to b), a known mixture of barbiturates. SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD, Ph. D., CRIMINALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 11th Ed., @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. SPECTROPHOTOMETRY gnolavow Inanogenoa The technique of chromatography is particularly suited for analyzing illicit drugs because it can separate a drug from offer fragrances that may be prec svow idellis to palbased AT cult in the drug preparation. However, chromatography has the drawback of vibolay thetohunts

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279 DRUGS Prism White light n long Screen arated Red Sli detec Orange mical Yellow Green orded Violet Blue ord of Violet am is F 11-19 A representation of the dispersion of light by a glass prism. SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD: rically e (on FIGUNALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 1 1th Ed., @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronican eaks, reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. The observation that a substance has a color is consistent with this des glass n of white light . For example , when light passes through losorbs all the compghent colors of light excepts through a red glass, the glass abensmitted by the glass . Likewise , one can determine the color of an opaque nile ject by observing its ability to abs Reflecting others back to the eye. Color is this component colors of light while visual indication that objects absorb certain portions of visible light and transmit or reflect others. Scienam; have long recognized this phenomenon and have learned to characterize cherant cal substances visible light nces by the type and quantity of light they absorb . This has important implications for the identific. colored light ranging from red entification and classification of forensic evidence. to violet in the electromagnetic Visible light is only a small part of a large family of radiation waves know?? spectrum . e electromagnetic spectrum ( see Figure 1 1-20 ) . All electromagnetic electromagnetic spectrum waves travel at the speed of light (C) and are distinguishable from one another The entire range of radiation only by their different wavelengths or frequencies . Hence, the only property energy from the most energetic that distinguishes X-rays from radio waves is the different frequencies the cosmic rays to the least energetic two types of waves possess . radio waves. Similarly, the range of colors that make up the visible spectrum can be corre- lated with frequency. For instance, the lowest frequencies of visible light are red; X-ray A high-energy, short-wavelength waves with a lower frequency fall into the invisible infrared (IR) region. The high- form of electromagnetic radiation. est frequencies of visible light are violet; waves with a higher frequency extend into the invisible ultraviolet (UV) region. No definite boundaries exist between any colors or regions of the electromagnetic spectrum; instead, each region is composed of a continuous range of frequencies, each blending into the other. Energy increases ong wavelength Short wavelength Radio waves Microwaves Infrared Low frequency Ultraviolet X rays Gamma rays Visible light High frequency FIGURE 11-20 The electromagnetic spectrum. SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD, P.D., CRIMINALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 11th Ed, @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronicaly reproduced permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

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Heroin 281 DRUGS Amphetamine Absorbance Absorbance 250 300 Wavelength in nanometers 350 250 300 350 FIGURE 11-22 The ultraviolet spectrum of heroin. SAFERSTEIN, Wavelength (nanometers) RICHARD , Ph. D., CRIMINALISTICS : AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 11th Ed., 2015. Reprinted and Electronicaly FIGURE 11-23 The ultraviolet spectrum of an amphetamine. reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD, Ph. D., CRIMINALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION River , New Jersey . TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 11th Ed., @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY In contrast to the simplicity of a UV spectrum, absorption in the infrared (IR) region provides a far more complex infrared pattern. Figure 11-24 depicts the IR spectra of heroin and secobarbital. Here, Invisible short frequencies of light the absorption bands are so numerous that each spectrum can provide enough before red in the visible spectrum. characteristics to identify a substance specifically. Different materials always have distinctively different infrared spectra; each IR spectrum is therefore equivalent to a "fingerprint" of that substance and no other. This technique is one of the few tests available to the forensic scientist that can be considered specific in itself for identification. The IR spectra of thousands of organic compounds have been collected, indexed, and cataloged as invaluable references for identifying organic substances. The selective absorption of light by drugs in the UV and IR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum provides a valuable technique for characterizing drugs. goas MASS SPECTROMETRY The "Gas Chromatography" section discussed the operation of the gas chro- matograph. This instrument is one of the most important tools in a crime laboratory. Its ability to separate the components of a complex mixture is unsur- passed. However, gas chromatography has one important drawback: its inabil- by to produce specific identification. A forensic chemist cannot unequivocally state the identity of a substance based solely on its retention time as determined by the gas chromatographyortunately, by coupling the gas chromatography a mass spectrometer, forensic chemists have largely overcome this problem A mixture's components are first separated on the gas chromatograph direct connection between the gas chromatographycolumn and the mass spectrometer then allows each component to flow into the spectrometer as

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100.00 LOOC 500 0.00 4000 3500 3000 2500 2 2000 1500 Wavenumber cm-1 (a) 100.00 %T 0.00 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 Wavenumber cm-1 b) FIGURE 11-24 (a) The infrared spectrum of heroin. (b) The infrared spectrum of secobarbital. SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD, Ph.D., CRIMINALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 11th Ed., @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. it emerges from the gas chromatography mass spectrometer, the mate- rial enters a high-vacuum chamber where a beam of high-energy electrons is ion aimed at the sample molecules. The electrons collide with the molecules, caus- An atom or molecule bearing ing them to lose electrons and to acquire a positive charge. These positively positive or negative charge charged molecules, or ions, are very unstable or are formed with excess en- FIC ergy and almost instantaneously decompose into numerous smaller fragments. RIC and

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Gas 283 chromatograph DRUGS C Mass spectrometer Chromatograp FIGURE 11-25 How GCIMS works. Left to right, the sample is separated into its components by itic Fas chromatography and then the components are ionized and identified by characteristic fragmentISTIC Spectra 92sterns of the spectra produced by the mass spectrometer. SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD, Ph. D., CRIMINALbaby PAT INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 1 1th Ed, @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronicaly reproduced permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey . The fragments then pass through an electric or magnetic field, where the rom - try is that, under carefully controlled conditions , notwe substances product the same fragmentation pattern . In essence , one can think of this pattern as d " fingerprint " of the substance being examined (see Fi Mass spectrometry thus provides a specific means for identifying a chome - cal structure . It is also sensitive to minute concentrati " is widely used to identify drugs; however centrations. Mass spectrome yield significant applications for identifying other types of physical evidence Figure 11-26 illustrates the mass spectra of heroin and cocaine; here, each 43 369 327 268 Abundance 204 215 94 146 100 200 300 Mass/ charge (a) moinsge 182 82 303 272 Abundance 42 122 150 300 250 200 150 100 Mass/ charge 50 (b FIGURE 11-26 (a) The mass spectrum of heroin. (b) The mass spectrum of cocaine. SAFERSTEIN RICHARD, Ph.D., CRIMINALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 11th Ed., @ 2015. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

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CHAPTER 11 SOLVENT FRONT Jenigho device unless HEROIN - Pelage Imavee civil QUININE - ( a ) ORIGIN - FIGURE 11-17 Chromatography of FIGURE 11-16 A thin-layer known heroin (1) and quinine (2) standards chromatographyana extract. alongside a suspect sample (3). Richard Sirchie Finger Print Laboratories Saferstein, Ph.D. with a greater affinity for the moving gas phase travel through the column more quickly than those with a greater affinity for the stationary liquid phase. Eventually, after the mixture has traversed the length of the column, it emerges separated into its components. The time required for a component to emerge from the column after its injection into the column is known as the "retention time," which is a use- (b ful identifying characteristic. Figure 11-18(a) shows the chromatogra barbiturates; each barbiturate has tentatively been identified by comparing its retention time to those of known barbiturates, shown in Figure 11-18(b) FIGURE 1 However, because other substances may have comparable retention times (b), a know under similar chromatographyc conditions, gas chromatography cannot be TO FORENS considered an absolute means of identification. Conclusions derived from this Education, technique must be confirmed with other testing procedures. Gas chromatography is widely used because of its ability to resolve a Extra 11.1 highly complex mixture into its components, usually within minutes. It has SPEC he Gas Chromatograph the added advantages of being extremely sensitive and yielding quantitative The tech results. Gas chromatography has sufficient sensitivity to detect and quantitate drugs be materials down to the nanogram (i.e., 0.000000001 gram). ent in the

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basis and a even though it is not derived from opium or morphine. on of or False: it is not derived from opium arcotic drug. 34, librium valium are listed in schedul DRUGS 287 processes, and perceptions are called _ mpo- 14 . 13. Drugs that cause marked alterations in mood, attitude, thought 36. The erent marijuana plant . sively . are used to identify drugs conclu Color tests are use adia- is the sticky resin extracted from the 37. 15. hallucinogenic properties is presence of heroin . color-test reagent turns purple in the d in- 15 . The active ingredient of marijuana largely responsible for its 38 . The mical 16 . True or False: The potency of a marijuana preparation de- . The Duquenois-Levine test is a valuable color test for mixture . " pends on the proportion of the various plant parts in the test is a widely used color test for ttern 39 cocaine . erials 17. The marijuana preparation with the highest THC content is tests tentatively identify drugs by the size trum LSD is a chemical derivative of PCP and shape of crystals formed when the drug is mixed with pecific reagents . a ob cal obtained from the ergot fungus that grows on certain grasses and grains. a chemi- technique th moving liquid phase and a stationary with e to separate mixtures is 19. The drug phencyclidine is often manufactured for the illicit- drug market in - 41 . True or False : Thin-layer chromatography yields the positive identification of a material . netry 20. True or False: Alcohol depresses the central nervous system. laboratories. 42 . The process of called tocess of separating light into its component colors is 21 . 43. True or False: Color is an indication that substances selec- are called " downers" because they de- press the central nervous system. tively absorb light. 44 . Visible light and X-rays are only Frays are only part of the family of radiation waves known as the barbiturate . hit is (higher, lower) in frequency than violet light. True or False: Phenobarbital is an example of a long-acting 46 The selective absorption of electromagnetic radiation vy 23 . heroin is a powerful sedative and muscle relax- ant that possesses many of the depressant properties of materials (can, cannot) be used as an aid for identification. barbiturates . 47 . The pattern of a (n ) . and _ 24 . _ and stimulets drugs are used to absorption spectrum suggests a probable identity of a drug. 48. An (infrared, ultraviolet) absorption spectrum provides a relieve anxiety and tension without inducing sleep. unique "fingerprint" of a chemical substance. 25. True or False: Huffing volatile solvents stimulates the central 49. The study of the absorption of light by chemical substances nervous system. is known as _ _ and the instrument used Shiva are a group of synthetic drugs that stimu to measure and record this absorption spectrum is the 26 . late the central nervous system. 50. A mixture's components can be separated by the technique 27. is extracted from the leaf of the coca of which separates mixtures on the basis of their distribution between a stationary liquid phase and a plant. 28. Traditionally, cocaine is Shod into the nostrils. moving gas phase. 29. True or False: Cocaine is a powerful central nervous system 51. The gas chromatography in combination with the can separate the components of a drug ben- depressant. mixture and then unequivocally identify each substance present in the mixture. ad- 30. The two drugs usually associated with drug-facilitated sexual _ and . Rossie 52. The technique of exposes molecules to a assaults are steroids are designed to promote muscle beam of high-energy electrons in order to fragment them. have 31. growth but have harmful side effects. _schedules of clas- 53. True or False: A mass spectrum is normally considered a specific means for identifying a chemical substance. cuts 32. Federal law establishes sification for the control of dangerous drugs. 33. Drugs that have no accepted medical use are placed in hine schedule roin

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288 CHAPTER 11 APPLICATION AND CRITICAL THINKING 1. An individual who has been using a drug for an extended 6. When legal period of time suddenly finds himself unable to secure more b) This drug has medical use in the United States, is not were of the drug. He acts nervous and irritable and is hyperac- limited by manufacturing quotas, and may be exported tive. He seems almost desperate to find more of the drug without a permit. but experiences no sickness, pain, or other outward physical This drug must be stored in a vault or safe, requires discomfort. Based on his behavior, what drugs might he pos- separate record keeping, and may be distributed with a sibly have been using? Explain your answer. prescription. 2. Following are descriptions of behavior that are characteristic 1) This drug may not be imported or exported without a permit, is subject to manufacturing quotas, and cur- among users of certain classes of drugs. For each descrip- rently has no medical use in the United States. tion, indicate the class of drug (narcotics, stimulants, etc.) for which the behavior is most characteristic. For each descrip- 4. A police officer stops a motorist who is driving erratically and notices a bag of white powder that he suspects is heroin on tion, also name at least one drug that produces the described effects. the front seat of the car. The officer brings the bag to you, a forensic scientist in the local crime lab. Name one screening a) Slurred speech, slow reaction time, impaired judgment, test that you might perform to determine the presence of reduced coordination heroin. Assuming the powder tests positive for heroin, what Intense emotional responses, anxiety, altered sensory should you do next? perceptions 5. The figure below shows a chromatographyn mixture c) Alertness, feelings of strength and confidence, rapid of barbiturates. Based on this figure, answer the following speech and movement, decreased appetite questions: d) Drowsiness, intense feeling of well-being, relief from pain What barbiturate detected by the chromatographyd the longest retention time? 3. Following are descriptions of four hypothetical drugs. According to the Controlled Substances Act, under which b) Which barbiturate had the shortest retention time? drug schedule would each substance be classified? ( ) What is the approximate retention time of amobarbital? a) This drug has a high potential for psychological de- pendence, it currently has accepted medical uses in the United States, and the distributor is not required to report to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. 1090 EN 1. Marijuana U.S. Gove Amobarbital Butabarbital Pentobarbital Secobarbital Phenobarbital 0 2 3 ( b ) 4 5 6 8 TIME (MINUTES) 9 10 11 12

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When investigating a warehouse for potentially storing it- legal drugs, the police collected a variety of drugs. The drugs 289 were tested with presumptive color tests for determining DRUGS States, is not be exported their possible identity. The test tubes shown in the following A B figure display the positive color tests. Match the drugs on the fight with the color tests on the left and name the test. afe, requires C buted with a D E d without a as, and cur- es. cocaine ratically and barbituates is heroin on ag to you, a heroin e screening presence of amphetamines eroin, what marijuana own mixture e following purple liquid pink layer above blue purple liquid chloroform above green violet-blue vegetation liquid orange-brown layer liquid togram had n time? SAFERSTEIN, RICHARD, Ph.D., CRIMINALISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE, 1 1th Ed., @ 2015. mobarbital? Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. DOO ENDNOTE 1. Marijuana-A Signal of Misunderstanding. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 56.

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