Review Questions Other than its historical references, what are at...

Review Questions

1. Other than its historical references, what are at least two other reasons that the discovery of the Beowulf manuscript is important?
2. What was the name of the landmark essay that Tolkien wrote that changed the way that the world viewed Beowulf?
3. Which three monsters did Beowulf defeat?
4. Which element of the story of Beowulf is most clearly seen in The Hobbit?
5. Tolkien said that the main idea of Beowulf was a new rehandling of what "ancient theme"?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What did Tolkien mean by the following statement: "We may be thankful that the product of so noble a temper has been preserved by chance (if such it be) from the dragon of destruction" ?
2. Write the definitions of an elegy and a heroic-elegiac poem. Why did Tolkien consider Beowulf to be a heroic-elegiac poem?
3. What was the reason Beowulf gave for losing the seven-day swimming contest? What character qualities does this reveal about Beowulf?
4. What statement in Beowulf reflects the heroic creed you studied in the last unit?
5. What are two advantage of using monsters rather than men as opponents in a story?

reference

The Background of Beowulf

Introduction

Sometimes, we tend to regard all ancient literature as dry and boring. Some of this reputation stems from the archaic literary forms in which the stories are told. These forms have a fascination and beauty of their own for those willing to learn the secrets to their art form, but they do differ significantly from the format of the modern story. This factor sometimes prevents people from trying to access the riches of the story itself.

However, some stories are so compelling that they transcend their ancient form and become source material for more modern versions of the tale. Beowulf is one such story. This ancient tale of man against monster has found its way to the modern movie and television screen in recent days in several adaptations. But Tolkien also used elements from this heroic tale in the writing of both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.

However, Beowulf has not always enjoyed such popularity. When the poem Beowulf was first discovered, it was regarded primarily as a significant historical find. The 3200 line poem was apparently first written sometime between 700 and 1000 A.D. Tolkien himself argued for a date in the 8th century. However, the events in the poem seem to be set in the time period of the 6th century. The reason for the dating of these events is because the poem refers to a king of Geatland (Southern Sweden) named King Hygelac, who, according to other historical documents, was indeed a Geatish king who died in 521 CE. Beowulf, the hero of this fantastic tale, is identified in the story as the nephew of Hygelac, even though Beowulf's name is lost in the annuls of actual recorded history. Several other minor characters in the poem also have a historic basis in this time period.

The events surrounding the preservation of Beowulf tell a story on its own. The discovery of the manuscript of Beowulf marked it as the oldest surviving epic-length Old English poem and added much to our current knowledge of the poetic style of the period. However, the document was important for another reason as well: it was also the earliest English dragon-slayer tale on record.

The document found its way into the collection of Sir Robert Cotton, an English baronet and renowned collector of antiquities. There it remained until 1731 when a fire destroyed Cotton's home, Ashburnham House. Beowulf was damaged, but not destroyed, in the fire and some of its content was lost. Scholars soon copied the document so that it could be studied in more detail and the poem could be protected from future disasters. As Tolkien once said, "We may be thankful that the product of so noble a temper has been preserved by chance (if such it be) from the dragon of destruction."

Since that time, the poem was has been translated several times. In 1909, Francis Gummere, a Harvard graduate, produced one of the most popular and successful translations because it tried to capture many of the features of Old English poetry. This is the version that you will be reading online for this assignment. In 1940, Tolkien wrote the preface for John Clark and C.L. Wrenn's prose version of Beowulf which told the tale in story form without preserving the features of Old English poetry. If you become interested in learning more about Beowulf, one of the best poetic translations today is by poet Seamus Heaney and features the translation alongside the Old English version. In 2014, the Tolkien estate released Tolkien's own prose translation of Beowulf—a work he never intended for publication at all because he was never satisfied with it. He had turned his attention to the writing of The Lord of the Rings before he could get it translated to his satisfaction.

Features of Old English Poetry

We often think of poetry as having rhyme. However, rhyming is a relatively new feature of English poetry in the historical context. Even today, modern poetry skews toward free verse, which tends to avoid specific rhyme scheme. However, in order for poetry to be poetry, it must have features such as meter, concision of language, and unusual word play which separate it from common prose.

Old English poetry is unrhymed but has several specific features that add beauty and power to the tale. This style of poetry is not only seen in Beowulf but also in many Old English riddles and other poems from the era. Since most of the poetry of this age was designed to be recited in mead halls, these features add auditory interest and aid in memorization. The unusual word choices and gnomic sayings also often made a dramatic impact on the listener and stayed with them long after the performance was over. Some of these features are still used today, not only in poetry but also in advertising and performance art. Understanding these features will not only aid in your understanding of Old English poetry but may improve your own creative efforts.

Alliterative meter

You have already learned from your study of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight that alliteration is a poetic device where the initial sounds of two words in the same line are the same. Alliterative meter is a type of unrhymed poetic meter in which each line of poetry consists of two balanced half-lines with a break in the middle. Each half line contains two stressed syllables and at least one word that alliterates with a word in the other half line.

For example, look at the following lines of poetry from Beowulf which have been marked to aid in your understanding of alliterative meter:

It was heavyhap / for that hero young

On his lord beloved / to look and find him

Lying on earth / with life at end . . .

Notice how each line contains four stressed syllables, two on each side of the break. (The stressed syllables are underlined in this example.) Notice also how there is alliteration on each side of the break, tying the line together. (These words are in bold.) In fact, there is so much alliteration in the entire poem that you may find yourself, in your daily speech, terribly tempted to toss in terms that totally match for some time to come!

Caesura

A caesura is a break or pause in the middle of a line of poetry. In Old English poetry, this occurs as a natural break that separates each line into two balanced half-lines, as indicated by the slash marks above.

Kenning

Beowulf likely traveled across the sea in a Viking-style ship similar to this one. One another term for a ship in Beowulf is a "swimming-timber," an example of a kenning.

Kennings are fun additions that are still used today. Basically a kenning is a short poetic phrase that combines two nouns or an adjective and a noun to replace and enhance a more common noun. For example "Fire-flier" is an example of a kenning describing a dragon. They are often hyphenated, but not always. These are fun to find and even more fun to create. Below are some examples of kennings, some modern and some taken from Beowulf. You can see how these can really catch on. These examples may inspire you to create your one for fun or profit in the realm of advertising.

Epithets

An epithet is a descriptive word or phrase that identifies a person or stands in place of their name. "Samwise the Brave" is an example of one used in The Lord of Rings movie (though Samwise the Stouthearted is used in the book). Other examples include Alexander the Great, Wielder of Wonder (refers to God in Beowulf), Meriodoc the Magnificent, and Ivan the Terrible. You may want to invent your own epithet for yourself or your friends. Use responsibly. No Steve the Stinker.

Gnomic sayings

A gnomic saying is very similar to an aphorism: A short phrase or sentence that teaches wisdom or make a moral point. Today we usually use the term aphorism more often, but in ancient literature, these were called gnomes or gnomic sayings, which do not refer to small magic creatures but come from a Greek root meaning "knowledge." The following example of a gnomic saying is from The Wanderer, another Old English poem from the 10th century CE:

A man gains no wisdom before he is dealt his winters in the world.

The Wanderer

Beowulf

Before you read the poem for yourself, it may be helpful for you to have a basic understanding of the story of Beowulf. As you read this section, note the questions that ask for certain details in the story that you should look for as you read the poem for yourself. These will help you answer the questions at the end.

One important thing to note: The action of the poem is set in an interesting time of history when Christianity has recently come to lands that have long worshipped pagan gods. Therefore, you will see a lot of references to Wryd (fate) and paganism mentioned. However, Beowulf represents the more "modern" Christian hero who strives to prove that the power of his God to aid him is greater than that of pagan deities. The setting of the story at the time of this religious crossroads is one reason that Tolkien argued for an 8th-century date for the writing of the poem.

Another element that may confuse you is the inclusion of other stories within the larger tale. At times, the poet may tell a story about another hero or about a relative of one of the main characters in order to demonstrate a point. (Often, these side stories are the ones that interest historians most because they sometimes deal with historical events.) So you will need to pay attention so that you can keep the stories straight.

The poem is basically the story of an underappreciated hero, one who has been a disappointment to his family in the past, but knows he is capable of great things with the help of God. In order to prove his valor, he comes to the aid of the Danish King Hrothgar who has a big problem on his hands: a monster has been eating his thanes (who apparently were quite tasty) over a period of 12 years!

Question: What was Hrothgar's mead-hall called?

Beowulf begins to boast about how he thinks he can accomplish the defeat of the monster with the help of God. He claims to have the gift of superhuman strength and the hand grip of 30 men. However, Unferth, one of the thanes, challenges Beowulf's boasts. Unferth says that he had heard that Beowulf had once lost a seven-day swimming contest.

Question: What was Beowulf's excuse for losing the swimming contest?

Beowulf refuses to use a sword in his fight with the monster, Grendel. It turns out that the sword would not have done him much good anyway. Beowulf instead puts his trust in the "wisest God." The next time the monster appears, Beowulf confronts him and, after a dramatic battle, kills him.

Question: How did Beowulf defeat Grendel? What body part did he keep as a trophy?

Beowulf and his men track the dying Grendel back to the swamp from which he came. Once they are assured of his death, one of the men begins to compare Beowulf to the hero Sigemund and relates the story of Sigemund's defeat of a great dragon. This foreshadows Beowulf's own dragon battle later.

When Hrothgar learns of Beowulf's deeds, he rewards him richly and holds a feast in his honor. There a scop (or minstrel) sings a lay (a narrative poem or song dealing with a specific heroic event) about the "Fight at Finnsburg." This story is about the disastrous results that occur when a Dane marries his daughter to a Finn in order to attempt to heal a blood feud.

After the feast, Grendel's monster mother appears and she is rather upset that someone has slain her baby boy. She grabs one of Hrothgar's favorite thanes and escapes to the swamp. Beowulf learns of this and follows her to her swamp which is full of Nicors (water monsters). For some reason, Beowulf decides that he needs to don full armor and borrow Unferth's sword (named Hrunting) before he goes underwater to battle Grendel's mother (without the aid of diving equipment).

Question: After Beowulf discovers that Hrunting cannot kill the Grendel's mother, what weapon does he find that does the job? What happens to the blade of that weapon after he kills the monster?

After this second victory, Beowulf and his men return to Hrothgar who praises him but warns him against pride by telling him the story of a savage king named Heremod. Beowulf then returns home to his uncle Hygelac in a ship filled with treasure given to him by Hrothgar. The two discuss the political situation and Beowulf mentions that he fears that Hrothgar's plan to pay for the death of Froda by marrying his own daughter to Froda's son, will end in disaster (as it does.)

Question: What is the name of Froda's son?

Hygelac is pleased with Beowulf's valor and mentions that he is glad that Beowulf did not turn out to be the lazy bum they had expected him to be. He also rewards Beowulf. After both Hygelac and his own son die, Beowulf becomes the Geatish king. He rules in relative peace for 50 years.

Then another tragic situation arises. One of the Geats, greedy for gold, steals a single cup from the hoard of a dragon that has slept and guarded his treasure for 300 years. The dragon awakens and, though the thief escapes, the angry dragon burns the countryside and Beowulf's home in the process. Beowulf, now an aged king, takes some men with him to confront the dragon.

Question: How many thanes does he take with him? How many are actually brave enough to face the dragon?

On the way to defeat the dragon, Beowulf talks of impossible choices and tells the story of his own grandfather, Hrethrel. One of Hrethel's sons accidentally killed the other. Hrethrel was left with the tragic dilemma of either leaving one son unavenged (thus violating the code of the day) or killing his other son. Hrethrel died over the strain of the impossible choice. Beowulf, apparently sensing impending doom, also offers some advice on how to deal with the feud between the Geats (southern Sweden) and the Swedes (northern Sweden.)

He then turns his attention to the dragon and faces a mighty battle. Beowulf is mortally injured in the battle but kills his foe.

Question: How does the dragon harm Beowulf?

As he is dying, Beowulf offers the throne to his faithful kinsman and thane Wiglaf. Wiglaf and the others then burn Beowulf's body and bury his ashes with some of the dragon treasure in an elaborate burial mound. His heroic quest has come to an end.

The Fate of Heroes

Beowulf is sometimes regarded as the first English epic because it meets many of the requirements of an epic mentioned earlier. However, Tolkien had a different opinion of the matter. He referred to Beowulf as a heroic-elegiac poem. An elegy is a poem that reflects upon death in general or mourns the passing of a particular individual. A heroic-elegiac poem is a poem that reflects upon the deeds and death of a hero. Note that in Beowulf there are several mentions of death and burials. The story begins with a description of a boat burial similar to that afforded to Boromir:

In the rockstead rocked a ring-dight vessel,

ice-flecked, outbound Atheling's barge:

there laid they down their darling lord

on the breast of the boat.... (lines 32-35)

... Grave were their spirits,

mournful their mood. No man is able

to say in sooth, no son of the halls,

no hero 'neath heaven - who harbored that freight! (lines 49-52)

The story ends with the burial of Beowulf where he was burned in a funeral pyre and then had his remains placed in an elaborate burial mound with much of the dragon treasure:

THEN fashioned for him the folk of Geats

firm on the earth a funeral-pile,

and hung it with helmets and harness of war

and breastplates bright, as the boon he asked;

and they laid amid it the mighty chieftain,

heroes mourning their master dear... (lines 3147-3152)

They placed in the barrow that precious booty,

the rounds and the rings they had reft erewhile,

hardy heroes, from hoard in cave,—

trusting the ground with treasure of earls,

gold in the earth, where ever it lies

useless to men as of yore it was. ( lines 3173-3178)

Thus made their mourning the men of Geatland,

for their hero's passing his hearth-companions:

quoth that of all the kings of earth,

of men he was mildest and most beloved,

to his kin the kindest, keenest for praise.

(lines 3188-3192)

This ancient burial mound at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, UK is from about the same time period as events that took place in Beowulf and is likely similar to the mound where Beowulf's remains and his possessions were buried. Photo by Geoff Dallimore, distributed under a CC BY-SA 2.5 license.

The theme of death is interwoven throughout the entire poem, even in the little side stories that were told. In his landmark essay, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," Tolkien said that Beowulf is simply a "new rehandling of an ancient theme: that each man, and all men, and all their works shall die." In other words, as Tolkien stated elsewhere in the essay, "the wages of heroism is death."

This is not to say that Tolkien or the writer of Beowulf was disparaging heroism. They were merely giving impact to this truism: all men shall die. Even the mighty Beowulf who slew two monsters and a dragon. But the ancient heroic code we discussed before still resounds in Beowulf: "Yea, death is better for liegemen all than a life of shame! (lines 2900-2901)"

Imaginary History

When Beowulf was first discovered, historians hoped to find in it a wealth of knowledge about the historical and political dealings of the time period. The poem does contain references to true historical people and events, such as the reign of the Geatish King Hygelac. However, the poem focuses on the deeds of Hygelac's supposed nephew who allegedly killed two monsters by superhuman means in his youth and then slew a dragon in his old age. The historians were not amused.

Tolkien argued that the poet had taken some poetic license and created some imaginary history to make the story more interesting. Imaginary history is history that is adapted or fabricated by an author to fit the details of his story. In today's science fiction and fantasy, this is a familiar concept. In fact, a whole sub-genre of fantasy called alternate history has emerged in which the author has history unfold in ways that differ from reality to add interest to the story and explore alternate possibilities about how that difference would have affected the world.

However, this concept of "imaginary history" is not one that historians necessarily approve of in a "historical" document. Much of this is a matter of perspective. Imagine, for instance, that the earth suffered a grand catastrophe and very few documents survived to reflect the history of our planet to historians arriving decades later. Now imagine that one of the most complete documents they found was The Lord of the Rings. What conclusions might the historians draw about the history of our world? How much would be accurate?

The Value of Monsters

Those pesky monsters seem to be the thing that most annoy most historians because they are clearly fantasy elements. However, in "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," Tolkien defended the monsters by arguing that had two clear advantages: they make the story more interesting, and they elevate the struggle of good and evil above a battle between men and men.

To those who complained about the poem's emphasis on monsters rather than the more "historical and relevant" parts of the story, Tolkien gave this reply, "More than one poem in recent years has been inspired by the dragon of Beowulf, but none that I know of by Ingeld, son of Froda." Monsters do seem to inspire interest. If you are honest, you will likely admit that the portions of the poem dealing with the monsters are more interesting than the historical and political side stories. Monsters capture our imagination and gain our interest. That is why so many fantasy books and movies feature them.

But monsters can serve a nobler purpose as well. In a battle between men and monsters, there is usually not a philosophical or moral debate on whether the monster deserves to die. In most cases, the monster is mean; the monster is dangerous; the monster seeks who he may devour; therefore, the hero must slay the monster. Good must always conquer evil.

However, in battles between men and men, the issues are far more complicated. Every man has some mixture of good and evil in him. Every man's motives differ based on his own life experience. A man living in a war zone may be more likely to kill because he expects to be killed. We don't always know what is in another man's mind and heart.

Remember the scene in The Two Towers when Faramir captures Sam and Frodo? He gives a little speech speculating on the motives of the soldier. In the book, these words were originally the thoughts of Sam as he viewed his first conflict of men against men: "He wondered what the dead Man's name was, and where he came from; and if he was really evil of heart, or what lies or threats had led him on the long march from his home; and if he really would not rather have stayed there in peace." We do not usually think these deep, philosophical thoughts when battling a fierce monster.